From orphan to merchant

This new movement, Islam (Arabic, meaning "submission" [to God]), was founded by an at first obscure, self-proclaimed "prophet" born and raised in Mecca, a city situated on the western Arabian trade route linking Yemen in southern Arabia with the Byzantine lands to the north.  Muhammad was orphaned as a boy and raised by his uncle Abu Talib, leader of the Banu Hashim (or Hashemite) clan of the Quraysh tribe.  The Quraysh tribe dominated life in the city of Mecca – though the Banu Hashim were a rather unimportant clan within that tribe.  Life was not easy for Muhammad, being both an orphan and member of a relatively impoverished clan.  But his uncle did what he could to help raise Muhammad – taking him on trade journeys north to Syria, where Muhammad was first exposed to the Byzantine Christian culture.  Muhammad was being prepared for the life of a tradesman – the only career open to a landless orphan.  But he proved to be a hard and reliable worker at this trade and was hired by Khadijah, a woman 15 years older than him, to be in charge of her caravans to the north.  Eventually (595) Khadijah proposed marriage – which he accepted.  This not only secured a comfortable life for Muhammad, but it proved to be a happy marriage.

The beginning of the Qur'an (Muhammad's prophetic recitations)

Mounting troubles in Mecca

At first, he attracted only a handful of followers who took his pronouncements seriously: his wife, Khadijah; a slave he had freed, Zayd; his very young cousin. Ali; a close friend, Abu Bakr, and one or two others.  Mostly Mecca scorned him – especially when the numbers of his followers began to increase.  A serious problem facing Muhammad was that Mecca was not only a trade center it was also a religious center.  Once a year, for about a month, the tribes of Arabia would declare a truce and gather peacefully in Mecca to worship their tribal (pagan) deities in the city's center, ranged around the Ka'bah, a large cubic structure approximately 40+ feet in each direction, containing in one corner a black stone (possibly a meteorite) 12 inches in diameter.   This was very important commercially for the city of Mecca.  And to have Muhammad year after year shouting prophetic warnings against the tribes' pagan practices during this high holy month was more than the Quraysh town fathers could tolerate.

They could not simply execute Muhammad – for he enjoyed tribal protection as a fellow Quraysh.  But his followers who had no such protection they were not hesitant to remove by whatever means necessary.  Thus in 615 a number of Muhammad's followers left Arabia and moved to Ethiopia, coming under the protection of the Christian Ethiopian Emperor or Negus, Ashama, when it was pointed out that Muhammad's Muslims (according to the Maryam or 19th Sura) venerated Jesus – and the Virgin Mary.  It was not pointed out however that Islam viewed Jesus only as a prophet – and definitely not as the Son of God.  And Mary, though among Muslims a highly venerated woman, certainly was not viewed by Islam as the Theotokos or "Mother of God" as she was by the Christians of those times. 

In any case through a misunderstanding about some of Muhammad's recitations (the "Satanic Verses" in the 53rd Sura) the Quraysh forgave Muhammad and invited his followers to return to Mecca.  Muhammad later recanted on these particular verses – and the persecution of the Muslims in Mecca resumed.  In 617 Quraysh leaders ostracized the Banu Hashim for their protection of Muhammad, cutting off not only trade with but also food for the Banu Hashim.  This situation persisted for two or three years – however ultimately producing no repentance on the part of Muhammad, although a very shameful treatment of fellow Quraysh.  Eventually the ostracism was stopped.

The year 619 was the "year of sorrows" for Muhammad, losing both his wife and his uncle in that same year.  Leadership of the Banu Hashim now passed to a bitter enemy of Muhammad.  Muhammad escaped to Ta'if – but, failing to secure a tribal sponsor there, found his life in danger in Ta'if as well.  But he was able to return to Mecca when the clan leader of the Banu Nawfal extended the clan's protection to Muhammad.

The Isra and Mi'raj (620)

Muhammad claimed that one night Gabriel took Muhammad on a journey.  During the first part of the journey, the Isra, he was taken from atop the Ka'bah in Mecca by way of a winged horse to a distant mountain (what Muslims believe was the Temple Mount in Jerusalem) and proceeded to lead other prophets in prayer.  During the second part of the journey, the Mi'raj, the horse takes him from this mountain to heaven, speaking to the ancient prophets and to God (Allah).  Here he is instructed by God on prayer – which, thanks to the intervention of Moses – is reduced to only five in number per day.   He is then returned to earth.  One of the effects of this journey was that it made the Jerusalem mount, or al-Aqsa, the third most holy site in Islam (after Mecca and Medina). [Jerusalem was initially very central to Muhammad's sense of religious orientation.  Similar to the Jews of Arabia, the Muslims had been praying toward Jerusalem (the Qiblah or direction of prayer) – until Muhammad abruptly changed the Qiblah toward the Ka'bah in Mecca.]

The Hijra (the "withdrawal') – 622

Even under the protection of the Banu Nawfal, Muhammad's situation in Mecca remained dangerous – and Muhammad began to explore the possibilities of moving elsewhere. Negotiations with Yathrib (which would later be termed simply Medina, meaning, "city") proved fruitful.  His Islamic religion had reached north to Yathrib.  A delegation from Yathrib met secretly with Muhammad to invite him and his followers to move to their town.  They were having tribal conflicts in Yathrib – largely on-going blood-feuds between the Arab and Jewish tribes of the town.  Accompanying the offer was the hope of the delegation that Muhammad might come to the town as a "judge" and restore order and peace there.  Muhammad agreed.
 
When word of the pending migration reached the Quraysh they attempted to stop it (as they had with those who had moved to Ethiopia).  But most of Muhammad's followers (who came to be termed the Muhajirun or "emigrants") were able to slip away to Yathrib.  Then in the dark of night Muhammad himself (and his friend Abu Bakr) made their escape to Yathrib.  This was the year 622 on the Christian calendar.  For the Muslims, this event (the Hijra) serves their calendar as the beginning of year one … and the official beginning of Islam.
 
In Yathrib (Medina) Muhammad immediately set about establishing a new legal order on which his "peace"¹ might stand.  The Medinans (people of Yathrib) began a massive conversion to Muhammad's Islamic faith – and closed forces with the Muhajirun as Ansar or "helpers" of the immigrants.  The Jewish tribes of the area were included in the new arrangement.  Yet some of the Jews and some recalcitrant pagan tribesmen of Medina were bitter about this new order.  When some pagans produced verses mocking Muhammad and his Muslims, they were assassinated.  As Muhammad did not disapprove of the assassination, no one dared to take revenge for the murders.  This would be the end of overt pagan opposition to Muhammad in Medina.

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¹Salaam (similar to the Jewish Shalom) is the fundamental concept of Islam (I plus Salaam) ... a religion, worldview, and social order which names itself after this very concept.  Salaam conveys the idea that blessing of true "peace" comes only in submitting to the will of Allah.  A Muslim (Mu plus Salaam) is simply one who has submitted thusly.  The goal of Islam is to bring all the world to such submission … by whatever means necessary.

The Battle of Badr (624)

Expulsion and/or execution of the Arabian Jews

Failure of the Meccans to take Medina essentially shut down their trade with Syria – a crucial piece of Mecca's economy.   But Muhammad received a vision of a Hajj (holy pilgrimage) to Mecca and ordered his followers to accompany him to Mecca for that purpose.  The Meccans attempted to block their arrival – then decided to enter into negotiations instead.  What was finally agreed was that the Muslims would return to Media – but be allowed to return the next year for a Hajj.  In any case Mecca now recognized Muhammad's leadership – and were willing to enter a period of peace with him and his followers.

The Battle of Khaybar (629)

With peace with Mecca secure Muhammad turned his attention to the Jewish oasis of Khaybar.  The Jews were forced to surrender – but were spared their lives under agreement to send fully one-half of the produce of the oasis to the Muslims as jizya (tribute).  This would establish the Muslim principle of allowing non-Muslims (or at least Christians and Jews, considered by Muslims to be fellow "people of the Book") to retain their lives, their homes, even their religion, provided that they pay Muslim authorities a jizya on an on-going basis.  Nonetheless, when Umar headed up the Muslim community after Muhammad's death three years later, the agreement was broken and the Jews of Khaybar were expelled from Arabi anyway.  Henceforth, (and to this day) there would be none but Muslims allowed to live in the Muslim homeland of Arabia.

The conquest of Mecca (630)

A tribal feud between a tribe allied with Muhammad and a tribe allied with the Meccans ultimately ended the two-year peace.  Muhammad marched on Mecca with what was a now a huge army (perhaps 10,000 soldiers) – and quickly took control of Mecca.  He spared all but of few of the Meccans – who then for the most part agreed to become Muslims.  The pagan statues surrounding the Ka'bah were destroyed – though the Ka'bah itself became accepted as the center point of all Islamic worship from that time forward.

The spread of Muhammad's authority in Arabia

Now Muhammad took up the cause of Mecca against some of its traditional tribal enemies – sending a large army out against several tribes and bringing them to defeat – and subsequently to acceptance of Islam.  Muhammad's reputation was spreading rapidly in Arabia – and even Bedouin (nomadic) tribes began to accept Islam in acknowledgment of Muhammad as Arabian leader.

His death (632)

Soon after completing the great annual Hajj to Mecca in 632, Muhammad gathered the huge crowd of pilgrims (perhaps 120,000) and delivered a long sermon explaining some of the last details completing the full requirements of the Muslim.  He concluded with an admonition to follow the Qur'an and ... ?

Here debate within Islam is intense.  The Shi'ites ("faction" or "party" of Ali) claim that he added the name of his nephew (and son-in-law) Ali.  Sunnis claim, however, that he added the word Sunna (the proper "way" of the Muslim).  Which of those two options was it that Muhammad wanted the faithful to then follow? 
From the very beginning, Islam was thus destined to split into two deeply hostile factions: the Shi'ites and the Sunnis.

Muhammad then returned to Medina ... and a few months later became sick and died.  He was buried in Medina (his tomb is now housed in Medina's Mosque of the Prophet).