The War in Asia and the Pacific Opens Up

The fall of the Philippines

Meanwhile, the American "protectorate" of the Philippines came under the same Japanese assault ... though it would take considerably more time and effort to secure the Philippines for the Japanese Empire. The Filipinos were militarily capable (having given America considerable resistance only some two decades earlier) and fought with all their might against the Japanese war machine.

But the Japanese were persistent in their effort, and eventually the Filipinos and the 12,000 American troops stationed there found food and weapons resupply impossible because of the Japanese control of the Pacific at that point. Thus in early May the last holdout at the Corregidor fortress of both the Filipinos and Americans was forced to surrender.

The Bataan Death March

What would follow was characteristic of the Japanese, who held in full contempt anyone who would not fight until death … for in Japanese thinking, this was the only exit from a bad situation. Thus American and Filipino prisoners were force-marched 60 miles in heat without food or water to their prison in Bataan, with thousands dying along the way – with even more dying soon after arriving at the prison camp.^¹

But again, instead of breaking the will of the Americans, folks back home, when they heard of the Japanese atrocities, deepened their rage against the Japanese ² ... though at the moment there was little they could do – for the country was still very unprepared for war.

¹Figures vary widely, from 2,500 to 10,000, because many of the Filipinos were able to escape along the way ... affecting the count. Also the original number of prisoners is not known with any precision, varying from 60,000 to 80,000 in the best estimates.

²Tragically, some of that anti-Japanese wrath got directed toward the large number of Japanese-Americans living in America ... most of whom were loyal American citizens. But they would be taken from their homes and shops nonetheless and placed in internment camps during the course of the war. However, some young Japanese-Americans would still serve most honorably in the American military. But overall, this horrible treatment of its own Japanese citizens would be a most dark mark on America’s moral profile ... not one easily wiped away even with time.

Surrender of American troops at Corregidor, Philippine Islands, May 1942
National Archives 208-AA-80B-1

Japanese banzai (hurrah) for victory in a 5-month siege
against the Americans and Filipinos in the Philippines
U.S. Army

Some of the 12,000 GIs and 64,000 Filipino soldiers who surrendered to the Japanese at Bataan - May 1942.& nbsp; They were forced to take up a 65-mile march without water and in the tropical heat to a POW camp. Some 10,000 escaped en route – but 6,500 died along the way. Another 17,000 died in Japanese POW camps)

Americans surrendering to the Japanese at Bataan - May 1942

American troops on the "Death March" after a month-long siege on Corregidor Island - May 1942

"The March of Death. Along the March [on which] these prisoners were photographed, they have their hands tied behind their backs. The March of Death was about May 1942, from Bataan to Cabanatuan, the prison camp."

"This picture, captured from the Japanese, shows American prisoners using improvised litters to carry those of their comrades who, from the lack of food or water on the march from Bataan, fell along the road." Philippines, May 1942.

The Japanese Empire at its height – mid-1942

THE ALLIES BEGIN THE ASSAULT ON A RETREATING JAPAN

Peck and Deyle, p. 626

The Advance against Japan
Evans, pp. 322-323

THE DOOLITTLE RAID ON JAPAN – APRIL 18, 1942

One thing Americans did do, more for morale-boosting purposes than for military purposes, was an air raid on the 18th of April on Japan (mostly Tokyo). Down but not out, the Americans wanted to send the Japanese a message – that Japan was vulnerable and would pay for its ill-advised attack on America.

Sixteen B-25 bombers flew from the Aircraft Carrier Hornet to bomb Tokyo and other Japanese cities - more a symbolic hit than a serious military strike. Their bombing was not terribly devastating – but achieved its psychological objective. All the planes crashed (ran out of fuel) before reaching their destinations in China - but the crews of 14 of the planes eventually made it back to America.

They had planned to land in China in friendly territory after delivering their bombs. But they were forced to start 10 hours earlier than originally planned because the fleet backing up this mission had encountered (but subsequently sunk) a Japanese packet boat ... but probably not before the Japanese crew had given notice to Tokyo of the presence of this American fleet not that far East of Japan). Awareness of this new situation forced the Americans to make the decision to send the bombers off on their mission immediately ... 190 miles further from Japan than originally planned.
Nonetheless the sixteen bombers successfully bombed Tokyo and five other cities before heading on to China ... still 13 hours away.
They were very low on fuel. One bomber headed for the Soviet Union and the other fifteen were forced to crashland or bail out just inside China, short of their designated landing sites ... and in territory under Japanese occupation. Two crews were captured by the Japanese and their officers executed. However local Chinese helped the other crews get to safe territory deeper into China. And the Soviets eventually helped the crew that landed in Russia 'escape' to Iran.
The Japanese took revenge on the Chinese villagers who helped the Americans. As many as 250,000 Chinese paid with their lives for that assistance. All airfields in the region were destroyed in order to prevent another such raid on Japan (none was planned ... as the raid was subsequently considered almost suicidal).
Doolittle initially thought that his raid was a total failure and expected to be courtmartialled and stripped of command. But the raid was such a boost to American morale that instead he received the Medal of Honor, a larger air command ... and lasting fame!
Though Japan suffered relatively little material damage from the bombing, the humiliation was so great (how could the Japanese defense force have let this happen?) that it pushed the Japanese military to make the decision to perform a counter-strike against the Americans at Midway Island in June ... which turned out to be an even bigger disaster for the Japanese military!

Lt. Col James Doolittle, leader of the raid, talks with Navy Captain Marc Mitscher,
skipper of the USS Hornet
U.S. Navy
National Museum of the U.S. Air Force

"Take off from the deck of the USS HORNET of an Army B-25 on its way to take part in first U.S. air raid on Japan." Doolittle Raid, April 1942.
National Archives 80-G-41196

THE BATTLE OF THE CORAL SEA – MAY 4 - 8, 1942

In the meanwhile, during the first few months of 1942, the Japanese had overwhelmed the greatly weakened English and Dutch, seizing all their colonial holdings in Southeast Asia. At the same time, the French - under Vichy governance - simply turned French Indo-China over to the Japanese. By April the Japanese were thus ready to seize the Australian colony in New Guinea - in anticipation of attacking and occupying northern Australia itself – and thus sent a fleet to take Port Moresby from the Australians. Possession of this vital port on the southern coast of New Guinea would protect their position in the South Pacific – and cut the supply line running from the United States to Australia.
But they did not know that the Americans had cracked their military code and were aware of the general nature of this plan, guessing (correctly) that Port Moresby was the intended Japanese target. US Admiral Nimitz thus sent four aircraft carriers and accompanying destroyers and cruisers to the area to intercept the unsuspecting Japanese.
The first encounter occurred on May 4th when planes from the Yorktown attacked Japanese in the process of landing and occupying the island of Tulagi - sinking the Japanese destroyer Kikuzuki and three smaller ships, and badly damaging four others. The Japanese were now aware of the American presence, though not its exact size or location.
The two fleets met on May 7th, not exactly by surprise, but without knowledge of the full extent and placement of the opposing side. Initially both sides found themselves confused about the location and direction of the main body of the opposing fleets. The Japanese misidentified two American ships as carriers (actually they were a much smaller oiler and destroyer) and sent their planes to attack and sink them. At the same time the Americans on the carriers Yorktown and Lexington located the Japanese carrier Shoho, and sent their planes to attack and sink the Shoho
The next day the two fleets were well aware of each other's location and a full air-sea battle ensued between carriers and their planes. The Japanese carrier Shokaku was badly damaged, though not sunk in the fight, and had to withdraw from action. Meanwhile the Japanese sent planes to attack the Yorktown and Lexington - both of which became badly damaged. Then the fighting let up. Both sides were running low on planes and fuel.
The Lexington had suffered serious damage to the carrier when a fire broke out in her control station and spread quickly, igniting munitions stored aboard the carrier. She had to be abandoned and soon sank. Meanwhile the Yorktown returned to Pearl Harbor for repairs.
The Japanese claimed a huge victory over the Americans - (their only significant loss was the light carrier Shoho whereas the Americans lost the Lexington, one of its four major aircraft carriers). The Japanese thus led themselves to believe that in a future confrontation with the Americans they would destroy the rest of the American carrier fleet. Thus a battle such as the one that subsequently developed at Midway needed to take place soon (except that the Battle of Midway turned out to be a major Japanese naval disaster).
But this was the first time the Japanese had failed to move their seemingly unstoppable military machine forward - thus giving cheer to their enemies. Indeed, this would mark the furthest extent of the Japanese imperial reach in the Pacific - before they were forced slowly into a devastating retreat ... and ultimately into the total loss of the war.

The Japanese aircraft carrier Shoho, torpedoed at the Battle of the Coral Sea
U.S. Navy

A "mushroom cloud" rises after a heavy explosion on board USS Lexington (CV-2), 8 May 1942. This is probably the "great explosion" from the detonation of torpedo warheads stowed in the starboard side of the hangar, aft, that followed an explosion amidships at 1727 hrs. Note USS Yorktown (CV-5) on the horizon in the left center, and destroyer USS Hammann (DD-412) at the extreme left.

The Lexington, burning and sinking after the Battle of the Coral Sea

THE BATTLE OF MIDWAY – JUNE 4 - 7, 1942

The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor had clearly not achieved its objective, bringing America to its knees – so a second hit was planned, this time on the mid-Pacific island of Midway. The Japanese planned to actually occupy this island – making the California coast possibly vulnerable to Japanese air raids. The Japanese reasoned that the seizing of Midway would finally force America to bow to Japanese power.
But the Americans having cracked the Japanese code (somewhat) and being aware that the Japanese were planning something big – tricked the Japanese into revealing their goal. Thus forewarned that it was Midway, three American aircraft carriers (though the Yorktown was itself still badly damaged from earlier action) positioned themselves to intercept what turned out to be 5 Japanese aircraft carriers and a fleet of battleships and destroyers. The Japanese were not aware that the raid was no longer a secret – and were themselves caught off guard when planes from the American carriers attacked their fleet.
Over the next few days (4-7 June) Americans sank four of the Japanese aircraft carriers and a destroyer. 3 Japanese carriers were sunk in the opening rounds of the battle; 2 days later a Japanese submarine finished off the crippled Yorktown during its effort to return to base in Hawaii. But the Japanese lost another carrier -- and a total of 332 planes. This huge Japanese loss at Midway effectively ended their dominance in the Pacific.
This was a clear victory for America (though, to keep morale high in Japan, it was announced in Japan as a Japanese victory). This left Japan at the time with only two large aircraft carriers. But it had also cost a huge number of lives of experienced Japanese airmen.
It was not yet however, as some would say, the turning point of the war in the Pacific. But the Battle of Midway, plus the naval battle in the Coral Sea, certainly left Japan vulnerable to further American action.

Midway Atoll, looking just south of west across the southern side of the atoll, November 1941. Eastern Island, then the site of Midway's airfield, is in the foreground. Sand Island, location of most other base facilities, is across the entrance channel.

Eastern Island, Midway Islands, under attack, 4 June 1942
U.S. Navy

USS Yorktown is hit by an aerial torpedo - Midway, June 4, 1942

"USS Yorktown (CV-5) is hit on the port side, amidships, by a Japanese Type 91 aerial torpedo during the mid-afternoon attack by planes from the carrier Hiryu, in the Battle of Midway, on June 4, 1942. Photographed from USS Pensacola (CA-24). Yorktown is heeling to port and is seen at a different aspect than in other views taken by Pensacola, indicating that this is the second of the two torpedo hits she received. Note very heavy anti-aircraft fire."

Though badly damaged, she survived this attack. But as she was making her way back for repairs, she was sunk by a Japanese submarine on June 7.
PD-USGOV-MILITARY-NAVY

The aircraft carrier USS Yorktown listing heavily from a Japanese torpedo hit at Midway - June 4, 1942
U.S. Navy

The burning Japanese aircraft carrier Hiryu, photographed by a plane from the carrier Hosho shortly after sunrise on 5 June 1942. Hiryu sank a few hours later. Note collapsed flight deck over the forward hangar.
U.S. Navy National Museum of Naval Aviation

U.S. Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers about to attack the burning cruiser Mikuma for the third time.

"'Dauntless' dive bombers from USS Hornet (CV-8) approaching the burning Japanese heavy cruiser Mikuma to make the third set of attacks on her, during the Battle of Midway. Mikuma had been hit earlier by strikes from Hornet and USS Enterprise (CV-6), leaving her dead in the water and fatally damaged."
PD-USGOV-MILITARY-NAVY

Mikuma shortly before sinking. - west of Midway, June 6, 1942

"Japanese heavy cruiser Mikuma, photographed from a USS Enterprise (CV-6) SBD aircraft during the Battle of Midway, after she had been bombed by planes from Enterprise and USS Hornet (CV-8). Note her shattered midships structure, torpedo dangling from the after port side tubes and wreckage atop her number four eight-inch gun turret."
U.S. Navy - National Archives

Crewmen on the US carrier Hornet watching approaching Japanese planes
United States Navy

A Japanese bomber hit by artillery fire from the Hornet
United States Navy

GUADALCANAL (UP FROM THE SOUTH)

Although Midway had been a huge event in stopping Japan’s expansion, the actual turning point in the war in the Pacific would not occur until the Allies’ success in the battle of Guadalcanal (August 1942 to February 1943). Guadalcanal was a huge island located among the Solomon Islands to the north of the Coral Sea and East of New Guinea. This long-running battle finally resulted in an Allied victory which was very costly to the Japanese – and which indeed was the turning point in the war against Japan.

And although the Japanese were clearly in retreat after Guadalcanal, they fought fiercely for every inch of ground they gave up. The Japanese soldiers clearly demonstrated at Guadalcanal that whenever they would find themselves facing the likelihood of defeat, they would conduct a suicidal banzai charge against American machine guns rather than submit to the grand humiliation of surrender. Their military code of bushido demanded nothing less.

Tragically, not only did the loss of their fellow soldiers in this horrible war hit the Allied troops hard emotionally … seeing the Japanese willing to be butchered by Allied hands, rather than surrender to those same hands, unnerved the Allied soldiers greatly. It all seemed so pointless, so evil.

U.S. Marines rest in the field on Guadalcanal, circa August-December 1942

GIs slogging their way forward against the Japanese at Guadalcanal - 1942

GIs washing up on Guadalcanal

Carrier-based US torpedo bombers and fighters in formation for an attack on the Japanese fleet

BURMA AND INDIA

At the very beginning of its offensive in December of 1941, Japan and its ally Thailand had attacked British Burma (today’s Myanmar) and by April of 1942 had forced the British out of its colony there. The Chinese meanwhile were largely holding the line in the South against Japanese expansion in China.

Then from their position in Burma, in March of 1944 the Japanese attempted a new offensive against the Allies by attacking the British position in Assam (northeast India) which the Allies had been using as a base to fly supplies across the mountainous "hump" into China. To counter the Japanese, India itself provided over three million troops to the Allied cause, some of the most dedicated soldiers in the Allied cause.

Gandhi

Most amazing was the behavior of Mohandas Gandhi who, in 1942 – when the British were barely surviving in England under German bombardment and when the Japanese had the British on the run in Asia – decided that it was a perfect time to once again press for an end to British governance in India. In August of 1942, he announced the start of a "Quit India Movement" designed to drive the hard-pressed British from India through a campaign of civil disobedience, something that would make India ungovernable for the British ... and another easy Asian target for the Japanese.

Sadly, Gandhi seemed to have no interest in looking at how the Japanese actually treated the Chinese – or any other non-Japanese people they had overrun. It was important to Gandhi only to get Britain to "Quit India" … no matter what the social costs. Tragically, a politically blinded Gandhi had no ability – or desire – to carefully study exactly the costs versus the benefits of his campaign (typical of all Idealists).

The campaign, however, proved to be a huge failure when the Indians themselves showed little interest in crippling British authority in the midst of the war, a war in which many Indians themselves were serving in the British Imperial army.

Ultimately, the British arrested and imprisoned Gandhi – which did inspire an Indian reaction finally – keeping him locked up until he was released for health reasons in 1944.

Bose's Indian National Army (INA) supports the Japanese

While all of this was developing, an Indian National Army (INA) was assembled under the leadership of pro-Fascist Subhas Chandra Bose, who (like Gandhi) had dedicated himself to getting the British out of India. The INA even went so far as to ally itself with the Japanese in fighting the British (and even fellow Indian troops) in neighboring Burma, even planning to cooperate with the Japanese in invading India itself! Given the Japanese treatment of non-Japanese, this was truly a highly risky – actually highly foolish – program of the Indian Nationalists.

Nonetheless by June of 1944, the offensive proved to be a colossal failure for the Japanese ... and the INA. This effectively ended the Japanese ambitions in the region – and killed the momentum of the INA.

India divides

But by this time India was beginning to divide into a number of conflicting political, regional and religious parties: pro-British princely states with many Indian officers in the Imperial Army, pro-Soviet Communists, and millions of Muslims wanting to break from Gandhi’s Hindu India ... and Punjabi Sikhs – not sure of what would happen to them with Indian independence.

Obviously, Gandhi had given no thought as to the obvious social conflict that would descend on India with the British departure. But he would soon have the opportunity to witness the mass bloodshed that accompanied his political success ... and ultimately experience his own political reward (assassination).

Bose inspecting his Indian National Army

Bose with a German officer ... and with Hitler

When Hitler seemed unresponsive to Bose's offer of alliance of his INA with Germany, Bose turned to the Japanese ... who played along with his offer

Gandhi announcing his "Quit India Movement' designed to oust the British (and their culture) from India

Gandhi with INA soldiers at the INA Trials - 1945

Gandhi's answer to the British-introduced industrial revolution was to go back to ancient Indian ways (which, had India done so, would foolishly have caused the population to starve back to its pre-British population size of about half of the current population)

"U.S. Convoy which operates between Chen-Yi and Kweiyang, China, is ascending the famous twenty-one curves at Annan, China." Pfc. John F. Albert, March 26, 1945.
National Archives, 111-SC-208807

Go on to the next section: The War in the Sea and Air in the West

Miles H. Hodges

Go on to the next section: The War in the Sea and Air in the West

Miles H. Hodges

16. WORLD WAR – ROUND TWO

THE WAR IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC OPENS UP