Intense personal political rivalry Another major crisis to keep deeply the world's attention took place at about the same time in Sub-Saharan Africa … when the Belgians finally gave over their Congo colony in June of 1960 to a hopeful coalition of local Congolese leaders, supposedly constituting the leadership team of a new Republic of the Congo.  But with the departure of the Belgians, Congo society immediately broke down into a number of contending political groups ... principally between the new Congo President, Joseph Kasavubu, the new Prime Minister, Patrice Lumumba, and Moïse Tshombe, the leader of the secessionist Katanga Province.  The Katanga Province was where most of the vast mineral wealth of the Congo was located.  And Tshombe's desire to have his Katanga go its own way as an independent country in Africa was seen as a clever way designed by the Belgians to continue to hold on to their key economic interests in their former colony.  Also another smaller but also mineral-rich province, Kasai, was similarly attempting to set itself up as an independent state.  And ultimately there was the staff of the new Congolese army, anxious to play a key role in the Congo's political development.   Things got very messy, very quickly. The competition for power that developed among these leaders was of course personal, but also ideological, economic and ultimately (and most cruelly) tribal ... leading to an outbreak of ethnic cleansing undertaken by the Bakongo and the Baluba tribesmen (especially the Baluba of Kasai who were slaughtered by the thousands) ... and full revolt of sections of the new Congolese army. Belgian Whites also found themselves caught in the middle of the strife ... with the Belgians themselves accused of playing the Congolese contentions to their own economic and political advantage. The U.N. intervenes In mid-July of 1960 the U.N. Security Council approved a U.N. peacekeeping force to place itself in the Congo to try to stabilize the quickly collapsing political situation there.  Lumumba was hoping that these U.N. troops would help him put down the secessionist movements of the Kasai and Katanga provinces.  But the U.N. Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld insisted that they had no authorization to serve in this capacity.  So Lumumba turned to America for support ... but found Eisenhower reluctant to put America to such service, especially to a known "Socialist."  Lumumba thus did the one thing designed to make America crazy:  turn to the Soviets for assistance.  Khrushchev was more than happy to help out, immediately sending some 1000 military "advisers" to the Congo to help Lumumba secure the unity of the Congo. America now saw the Congo as going in the direction of Cuba: taking aid from the Soviets and thus joining the Soviet camp … and in the eyes of America also becoming "Communist" in the process. Mobutu takes action Then in early September Colonel Mobutu Sese Seko seized control and had the feuding Kasavubu and Lumumba removed from office – and a new council put in their place to try to bring things back under control … with Mobutu actually dominating things politically from behind the scenes.  Now began the very unsteady process of trying to get the various leaders to work together – minus Lumumba, who was arrested (September).  Lumumba then escaped to the Eastern Congo to set up his own government at Stanleyville.  But he was captured in December by Mobutu's forces. Lumumba’s fate now stirred considerable action in the U.N. … and between America and the Soviets.  Then in early 1961 Lumumba was sent to Katanga … where he was immediately but quietly executed (January 1961) by Tshombe’s troops.  When news of Lumumba's execution finally emerged, the international outrage at this point was huge.  It also inspired the rapid spread of the pro-Lumumba Simba Rebellion across the Eastern Congo. The U.N. presses for a solution Now Hammarskjöld attempted to undertake some personal diplomacy (mid-September 1961) to get the civil war to come to a halt ... but in flying to Africa, his plane crashed – with all aboard killed.  Likewise, the attack on Irish U.N. troops (November 1960) and the killing of 13 Italian U.N. pilots a year later intensified the international call for someone or something to bring the crisis to a close. More talks with Tshombe to bring his Katanga Province back into the Congo Republic went back and forth during the next year (1962) ... resulting in little real progress.  Thus U.N. troops (20,000 at this point) became more aggressive in their move against Tshombe ... and in early 1963 Tshombe was forced to give up his independence movement.  Finally getting things settled down A new constitution was drafted and approved the following year ... and Tshombe himself was called on to be the new Prime Minister!  This in turn sparked new tribal and political factional rebellions ... and a new "People’s Republic of the Congo" was declared by leftist rebels – quickly recognized and then supported by the Soviets, by Mao’s Chinese Communists, and by Castro’s Cubans. At this point the Cold War was in full swing ... with America supporting the government of Tshombe and his military under Mobutu – also aided by Belgian troops and a large group of White mercenary troops.    Finally, in late 1964, a Simba rebellion in the Eastern Congo was finally broken by the Belgian troops – who were then accused of "neo-colonialism" by leftists everywhere.  But it settled the crisis down considerably. However, growing tensions between Kasavubu and Tshombe created such a political stalemate that once again Mobutu was moved to take control (November 1965) ... and over the next years bring all governmental powers into his own hands.  He would continue to govern the Congo (the Congo undergoing a name change in 1971 as "Zaire") until his death in 1997! THE BI-POLAR WORLD IN TRANSITION Eisenhower's People to People (1956) Although a military man, Eisenhower – like most Americans (and others) at the time – understood the Cold War to be fought not on a military battlefield but instead a war fought in the minds of men and women in the realm of ideas … ideas involving economic assistance programs, educational programs, media presentation (he was a huge supporter of Radio Free Europe) … and ultimately simply the personal exchange of ideas by Americans with others of the world around him Thus it was that in 1955 Eisenhower organized a "People to People" conference to look at the idea of such personal exchange … and the following year announced the actual establishment of a new government program of that same name operating under the United States Information Agency,1 given the task of connecting ordinary American citizens with people overseas … connecting them through sporting events, musical concerts, theatrical tours, "sister-cities" twinning … and even just by way of individuals writing to each other as pen-pals.  And after Eisenhower himself suffered a heart attack, he expanded it to include medical service abroad.  Backing this program over the years were major American leaders in all forms of social activities (from the actor Bob Hope, to the Peanuts cartoonist Charles Schulz, to Walt Disney and many others)! This was very indicative of the American mindset of the times … shaped by America's original or founding Puritan (Protestant Christian) mindset, one that expected society to be built on the faithful service of its active citizens … not on the commands coming from a ruling class or organization of some form or other.  This traditional Christian mindset formed the foundations of the idea of "democracy" that America was so eager to bring to the world. But as we have already noted, this American mindset was not something found commonly in the larger world.  And there was nothing instinctive about such a mindset. Quite importantly, Eisenhower was correct in understanding that this would have to be taught to the larger world … not brought to them by the force of arms.  Unfortunately, this critically important understanding of the social dynamics of the larger world would be missing to most Americans, who – having never known any other world than their own – just supposed that the world "out there" was by all natural instincts ready to become like them … only if freed from a tyrannical social order preventing them from developing along these "Christian" (at this point actually quite "Humanist") lines.  Thus having a strong tendency to go down this Idealistic path, confusion and serious political-diplomatic problems would soon result for the rising American power. 1But before leaving office in 1961 Eisenhower saw to it that the People-to-People Program was privatized as a non-profit organization, overseen by a Board of Directors located not in DC but in Missouri! Eisenhower promoting his People to People Program - 1957 Sputnik In October of 1957, Americans woke up to the shocking news that the Soviets had launched into orbit around the earth the world's first man-made satellite, the Sputnik.  This was a double shock to Americans because it meant not only that the Soviets beat America in this critically important part of the race to show the world which society – Soviet or American – was more effective in advancing the realm of technology.  It also meant that America no longer had protection from a nuclear attack – for certainly the rockets carrying Sputnik into orbit could also send nuclear bombs to America. This was also a surprise because Soviet missile tests leading to this event had been conducted secretly (hiding the fact of the numerous catastrophes that had previously occurred) … whereas American tests were conducted publicly – and cautiously for fear of just such a public disaster.  And indeed there occurred just such a media-covered disaster that same December … soon after the Soviets had launched yet another satellite in November with a dog aboard (which lived only a short time in space). Americans were not sure whom to blame … but certainly someone was responsible for this grand American failure.  What Americans did not – or could not – understand was that such rocketry was a very complex matter in areas not quite so visible … areas in which America was quite advanced in its technological development.   Nonetheless, Eisenhower, in mid-1958, gave the American public his answer in setting up the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) … emphasizing the fact that NASA was to focus on science – not warfare – in its research.  This helped some … but still left Americans sensing their vulnerability to a Soviet nuclear attack.  Models on display in East Germany of the Sputnik (launched 1957) and the more elaborate Sputnik III (launched 1958) Sovfoto Laika - space dog, launched into space November 3, 1957 on a one-way trip "Peaceful coexistence" Nonetheless, there was good cause to hope that both Americans and the Soviets were going to be able to put the Cold War aside, at least the portion that had the two superpowers aiming at each other militarily.  Seeing things now as a matter of competing ideas rather than guns, there was some hope that the two sides could find that the realm of ideas offered them the opportunity to work together in building the new world … rather than standing in opposition to each other over every matter. Thus it was that in July of 1959 Vice President Nixon traveled to Russia to support an American display of a typical American home at Moscow's National Exhibition … and there also to conduct a friendly debate (the famous "Kitchen Debate") with Khrushchev about the differences in the lifestyle of the two countries.  Then that same September, Khrushchev returned the favor by coming to America to see firsthand the "American Way" … from corn farming to the Hollywood movie industry. "Peaceful co-existence" seemed so completely the new international mood, that an international conference to be held in Paris the coming May (1960) was announced, one designed to bring Russia, America, Britain and France together to investigate ways to improve world peace. However efforts were made by a newly confident Khrushchev to demonstrate that he only wanted a greater sense of peace to reign in the world ... and invited Vice President Nixon to visit Russia to see what the Russian world was truly like Khrushchev and Nixon having their "kitchen debate" at the U.S. exhibition in Moscow - July 1959 Khrushchev follows up a supposed "thaw" in the Cold War with his own visit to America  15-27 September 1959 Here he is with Eisenhower riding in an open car (still considered safe at the time) He visits American farms He even visits Hollywood Here he is with Frank Sinatra ... and Shirley MacLaine during the filming of Can Can And thus the world closes out the 1950s with the hope that it has entered a new era of total peace The U-2 incident Then just two weeks before the scheduled Paris conference, the Russians announced that they had shot down a very high-flying American U-2 plane over Russian territory … spying on Russia, to be sure.  Thus the mood that was supposed to guide the upcoming conference was changed considerably. But the situation only worsened when Eisenhower, believing that neither the plane nor its pilot could have survived the fall from such heights, claimed that this was not a spy plane but instead only a weather plane that had flown off course.  But the pilot did survive – as well as critical sections of the plane – both of which confirmed that Russia had indeed brought down a spy plane. At this point Khrushchev made as much as he could of the fact that he had caught Eisenhower issuing what the president knew quite clearly to be a lie.  Thus Khrushchev announced that Russia would be withdrawing from the upcoming conference. "Peaceful coexistence" thus took a huge hit … as well as Eisenhower politically.  Sadly, the "era of good feelings" that Eisenhower was hoping to leave behind as his presidential legacy was just not to be. However ... all the supposed "thaw" in the Cold War seemed to come to an abrupt end on May 1st (1960) with the shooting down by the Russians of an American U-2 spy plane over Soviet territory just two weeks prior to a scheduled summit meeting in Paris. American U-2 spy plane with its extra-long 80' wings. These wings allowed it to photograph over enemy territory at a height of 13 miles.  But this was discovered not to be adequate enough to avoid Soviet anti-aircraft fire when U-2 CIA pilot Gary Powers was shot down May 1, 1960. Soviet photo of captured U-2 pilot Francis Gary Powers Khrushchev visits a display of the U-2 wreckage The Soviet trial of the U-2 pilot Powers - August 1960 Eisenhower delivering a televised farewell address ... offering strategic advice to Americans about the challenges standing before the country. DE GAULLE STEPS FORWARD ... DEMANDING A NEW FRENCH FIFTH REPUBLIC The  worsening  situation in Algeria By 1957, acts  of  terrorism  were  spreading not only through Algeria but even France itself as Arab nationalists – members of the FLN (Front de libération nationale) – and French die-hards – members of the OAS (Organisation armée secrète) – fought each other in the streets over the issue of Algerian independence.   Then when it looked as if the French government was interested in negotiating a settlement with the FLN, on 13 May 1958, angry Algerian French (soldiers and civilians) seized the government buildings in Algiers and formed a new governing committee, headed by General Jacques Massau – who the previous year had his paratroopers deliver a major blow to the FLN.  Infuriated over the idea that France was going to abandon Algeria the way it did Vietnam, Massau now called on de Gaulle to come out of retirement to save France.  The expectation was that de Gaulle would take the hard line against Arab nationalism that the political leaders of the French 4th Republic seemed unwilling or unable to assume. In support of this move, French paratroopers took control in Corsica – and rumors began to spread that they were readying themselves to take control in Paris.  A military coup in the heart of modern France ... how humiliating (and dangerous)!  All eyes began to turn to de Gaulle.  Only he seemed to have the power to avert a horrible national catastrophe.  Thus it was that the French President René Coty called on de Gaulle to take over as the Fourth Republic's prime minister.  De Gaulle's Fifth Republic (1958) De Gaulle was more than willing to answer the call to serve once again as France's "savior" … but not unless he was granted six months of emergency powers and unless a new constitution was drafted and approved that would then give the French national executive the powers needed to lead France.  France seemed to have no other choice but to grant de Gaulle his conditions.  The French parliament voted its approval of these terms … and thus at the beginning of June, de Gaulle took over the French political process. A new constitution was quickly drafted under the guidance of de Gaulle's supporter Michel Debré, and in September (1958) was approved in a national referendum by 78% of the French vote.  In December de Gaulle was elected President of the new French 5th Republic. There were of course many issues confronting France at that time, and de Gaulle set out to meet these challenges one by one (economic recovery, relations with the Germans, with the Americans, with the British, with France's African colonies).  But definitely the biggest challenge was Algeria ... and the general matter of African independence.  Algeria was not considered a colony and thus handled differently than France's sub-Saharan African colonies … which were immediately given the opportunity to go their way as newly independent nations … although they would remain in a diplomatic union with France as part of the French Community.2 Algerian independence (1961) Now France and the world waited to see how de Gaulle was going to tackle the thorny problem of Algeria. It soon became apparent that de Gaulle was leaning in the direction of granting independence to Algeria.  Consequently, the Algerian French and sections of the French military felt betrayed – and became bitter and rebellious … to the point of attempting a major military coup against de Gaulle (April 1961).  Numerous assassination attempts were also made on de Gaulle.  But de Gaulle remained in tight control of the situation, crushing rebellions – even violently, such as the bloody suppression of an Algerian uprising in Paris in October of 1961 – of both Algerian nationalists on the one hand and the very unhappy French Algerians (colons – also known as the pieds-noirs3) on the other.   Finally, in March of 1962, de Gaulle's decision in favor of Algerian independence was confirmed in the Evian Accords.  In April, a national referendum was held throughout France - with nearly 18 million "yeses" to less than 3 million "nos."  Then in July the Algerians voted on the Accords, with nearly six million "yeses" and less than 17 thousand "nos."   It was official.  Algeria was independent.  And France could move on.  But so would a million pieds-noirs who abandoned their homes and businesses in Algeria and headed for France, to try to start up a new life there.  And de Gaulle would have to face yet another (very serious) assassination attempt on 22 August 1962. 2Only the African colony of Guinée (Guinea) chose full independence at this point, coming under the authoritarian rule of Ahmed Sékou Touré from 1958 until his death in 1984 – a time period in which he allied closely with the Soviet Union … although in his last years he increasingly looked to America and the West for economic assistance in the form of investments in his country. 3"Black feet" … a pejorative term long applied to the colons – the original source of the term still something of a mystery … or at least under debate. Charles De Gaulle takes over French government in 1958 with the total stalemate in French politics over the Algerian question 1958:  General Charles de Gaulle, being greeted in Algiers as the savior of the French in Algeria. The French Algerians were certain that de Gaulle was going to keep Algeria in French hands ... something, however, that was not destined to happen. Algerian students engaged in a street battle with French tanks - Algiers, December 1960 1961:  Angry French mass outside government headquarters in Algiers. They are listening to rebellious French generals condemning de Gaulle's plan to begin peace talks with the Algerian (Arab) nationalists. The military was forced to back down after four days of resistance. 1962:  Women gather in Algiers to vote on the referendum on Algerian independence.  Six million Algerians aid 'yes,' Only 16,500 said 'no.'  Approximately 1.4 million French (the pied noir or "black feet") fled to France in fear of Arab Algerian nationalism, leaving behind family homes, farms and businesses. Algerian women voting on the Algerian independence decision - 1962 (leading to the decision of 1.4 million Europeans to leave Algeria) Algerian Arabs celebrate independence from France after 132 years - March 1962 Go on to the next section:  The Brief Kennedy (JFK) Era - 1961-1963   Miles H. Hodges