8. THE EUROPEAN RENAISSANCE

RENAISSANCE POLITICS

France

England

Spain

Venice: The first of the grand Italian city-
        states

The Medici and Renaissance Florence

Other Italian city-states and their "First
        Famillies"

The Papacy

The "Italian Wars" (1494-1559)

The Turks on the rise in the East

The textual material on page below is drawn directly from my work A Moral History of Western Society © 2024, Volume One, pages 286-302.

A Timeline of Major Events during this period 1413     Mehmed I (1413-1420) delivers the Ottoman Turks from Tamerlane's dominance 1415    The Battle of Agincourt brings the English Plantagenets a huge victory over the French                   Valois in the Third Phase (1415-1453) of the Hundred Years' War 1416    Alfonso V (1416-1458) unites his Spanish realm of Aragon with holdings in Naples, Italy 1428    Joan of Arc delivers Charles VII's surrounded French forces at Orléans its first victory 1431    Joan of Arc is burned at the stake as a witch by French religious authorities 1434    Florentine banker Cosimo de' Medici (1389-1464) returns from exile ... to then bring the                   Medici family to even greater prominence in the world of finance and art support 1448    Murad II bring Balkan societies under Ottoman control at the Battle of Kosovo 1453    At the Battle of Castillon, Charles VII's forces, in alliance with the Burgundians, defeats the                   English ... ending the Hundred Years' War             Medhmed II (1451-1481) conquers Constantiniple ... putting an end to Byzantine Rome 1455    English losses at Castillion begins the feud between the English House of Lancaster (red                   rose) and House of York (white rose) ... the war (1455-1487) thus known as the War of                   the Roses ... which ultimately destroys the Plantagenet dynasty 1458    Ferdinand I (1458-1494) receives his father Alfonso's Italian lands to rule             John II (1458-1479) receives his brother Alfonso's lands in Aragon to rule 1469    Teenagers Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon are married             Cosimo's grandson Lorenzo ("the Magnificent") inherits the Medici leadership ... bringing                   the Medici family to full greatness in Italian politics and culture 1474    Isabella becomes Queen of Castile (1474-1504) 1478    Isabella establishes the Spanish Inquisition to bring down Jews and Muslims 1479    Ferdinand becomes King of Aragon (1479-1516) 1485    Henry VII (1485-1509) takes power in England, establishing the Tudor dynasty 1492    The last Muslim stronghold in Spain at Grenada is brought down by Spanish forces             Isabella-commissioned Columbus discovers "America" ... and founds Spanish rights there             Morally "liberal" Rodrigo Borgia becomes Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) 1503    Pope Julius II (1503-1513) continues the deep politicization of the papacy 1504    Ferdinand and Isabella's daughter, Joanna of Castile, becomes queen ... and her                  husband, Philip of Habsburg, also becomes King of Castile ... bringing the                  Flemish-Dutch Habsburg family into prominence 1506    Philip of Habsburg dies and Isabella's father takes command of Castile as administrator                  ... Joanna being declared "insane" (actually a political move) 1509    Henry VIII inherits his father Henry VII's English throne 1513    Pope LeoX (1513-1521) advances the Medici family in the papacy's political affairs 1515    French King Francis I of the Orléans family begins his long reign (1515-1547) which brings                   France fully into Renaissance culture 1516    Joanna and Philip's son Charles of Habsburg (Flemish) begins his long rule (1516-1556)                   as Spanish king and Austrian ("Holy Roman") emperor ... and other European lands 1520    Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566) brings the Ottoman Empire to full glory 1533    Henry VIII divorces Catherine of Aragon – angering her nephew, Spanish king Charles,                  and breaking religious ties with the Vatican ... although Henry himself is not a "Protestant"

This new spirit of Renaissance humanism also captured the hearts and souls of a number of princes or secular military rulers who developed quite large views of themselves, individuals who were coming alive to the possibility of undergirding and extending their personal political rule through very worldly means, including crude violence if necessary.  These new rising leaders varied from feudal kings and even barons and dukes of Northern Europe, to the powerful Medici family (extremely rich banking family of Florence), to the professional soldiers or condottieri such the Sforza family ruling Milan ... who all sought greater independence from the restraints of the Church and the Holy Roman Empire in the pursuit of their more local ambitions.   European Christendom was clearly fracturing morally and politically, and these princes each wanted their own portions of that dividing Europe.  And they were willing to do most anything to acquire those portions. The Hundred Years' War resumes (1369-1453) The Second Phase (1369-1389).  In 1369 the Hundred Years' War would resume – and continue for another twenty years.  French King Charles V broke the previous peace when Edward, the Black Prince" refused to answer to Charles about complaints coming from the people of Aquitaine concerning Edward's heavy taxes levied on them in response to the huge cost of Edward's involvement in a Spanish royalty conflict going on next door.  Charles thus claimed full sovereignty over Aquitaine.  This meant war.   This time things did not go so well for the Plantagenets, either on land or at sea.  Bit by bit the English lost most of the holdings in France they had acquired during the First Phase of the war.  Then in 1376 the Black Prince Edward died, followed the next year by the death of his father King Edward III.  Coming to the throne (under a regency council) was then the 10-year-old Richard II, the Black Prince's son. Finally in 1389, Richard II – who had recently weathered the Peasant's Revolt in England in 1381 and was simply tired of all the political strife around him – was able to acquire a series of peace treaties with France that left him in control of Aquitaine … though his actual legal relationship with the French monarchy remained unresolved. The beginning of Third Phase.  In the early 1400s Henry V of England turned the Plantagenet-Valois conflict strongly in favor of the English Plantagenets.  The Valois army was crushed at the Battle of Agincourt (1415) and soon Henry drew various French barons to his side.  At this point he stood on a number of legitimate grounds ready to inherit the French throne.  But Henry died (1422) before he was able to take the French throne, leaving the Plantagenets in the hands of his nine-month-old son ... and a number of adult regents who attempted to keep the Plantagenet interest in France alive. Nonetheless, at this point the Plantagenets or "English" were still the more victorious.  And indeed it was only a 17-year-old girl that reversed the course of the ongoing war, and finally secured French rule for the Valois dynasty.

Joan of Arc (c. 1412-1431) and Charles VII (r. 1422-1461) Joan of Arc was a girl of only 13 when she first heard the voices that would call her to save France from disintegration.  For four years she quietly listened to these voices – until they became most insistent that she act immediately.  By the beginning of 1429 not only was France widely overrun by the English, but Charles, the Dauphin of France (heir to the French throne), was rapidly losing authority within even the small portion of France (a small area along the Loire River) that remained his.   Her reception by French authorities was about what she expected – total rejection.  But she knew the voices were serious, so she persisted.  With the help of some "signs" from the same voices, she was finally able to convince Charles of the legitimacy of her call.  Finally, in April of 1429, given command of a French army she quickly routed the English army besieging Orléans, chased the English out of the Loire valley and by July had delivered Reims from the English so that Charles could be crowned king (Charles VII) in this traditional coronation site.   Joan of Arc and Charles VII But now events began to move against her.  She continued to try to rout the English from France – even though Charles himself seemed to have little appetite for such doings.  When, yielding to public pressure to liberate Paris, in September she moved against the English in Paris.  She was wounded and the effort failed.  Meanwhile Charles made a truce with his enemies (and England's ally) the Burgundians.  But the next spring (1430) she took up arms again – only to be captured by the Burgundians in an effort to rally the French at Compiègne against an English-Burgundian assault on that town.  She was sold by her captor to the English … after Charles showed no interest in purchasing her release (jealousy?).   She was then turned over to a French ecclesiastical court (with strong pro-English sentiments) in Rouen to be tried as a witch.  After a lengthy trial she was found guilty of sorcery and heresy and sentenced to death.  On May 30, 1431 (age 19) she was burned at the stake as a witch.1   For more on Joan of Arc Charles then went on to get the powerful Burgundians to reverse course and become allies of his (1435), develop a professional army of his own (not dependent on feudal support of unreliable barons) – equipped with cannons – and then defeated the English at the Battle of Castillon in 1453.  From this point on, the English held no more territory in France except at Calais just opposite England on the French coast. The Hundred Years' War was finally over. The ongoing Valois The French kings who followed Charles, Louis XI (1461-1483) and Charles VIII (r. 1483-1498), found themselves deeply involved in the rather typical feuds over dynastic inheritances … and wars over extended territorial claims – principally in Italy – wars which would absorb both French and Italian politics for a half-century.  When Charles had no male heir, the crown then passed to a junior branch of the Valois:  the House of Orléans – the head of which was Louis XII … King of France (r. 1498-1515), (briefly) King of Naples, and Duke of Milan.   Then when Louis had no male heir of his own, the crown passed to his cousin (and son-in-law) Francis. Francis I (r. 1515-1547) Francis, in his long reign, would exemplify the Renaissance Man in French office … a major patron of the arts and letters – even as he continued French involvement in the affairs of Italy.  At the same time, he found himself facing a new challenge in the rising Habsburg family, led by Charles … who started out as Dutch Lord (to the North), then by inheritance became King of Spain (to the South), and finally by election Holy Roman Emperor (to the East).  Finding himself thus surrounded by this rising Habsburg power, Francis attempted an alliance with English King Henry VIII.  But not getting anywhere in the effort, he instead formed an alliance with the rising Ottoman Turkish Empire in Southeastern Europe ... principally with its Muslim sultan, Suleiman (the Magnificent)!  Quite a bold thing for a Christian sovereign to do! But truly, he was a king as interested in Renaissance culture as he was in the dynastic squabbles of the Renaissance sovereigns.  Thus he is still well known for his love of cultural refinements: art and architecture,2 fancy social occasions, etc. ... but also a certain decadence that accompanied his fancy lifestyle.   Nonetheless, Louis assembled a huge library of books (requiring a copy of every book published in France!) and historical manuscripts (which he apparently took the time to actually read) … then brought in scholars to study and discuss these works.   In the realm of architecture, he built (by da Vinci's own design) the fabulous Château de Chambord.  He also rebuilt the Louvre Palace in Paris and the Chateau de Fontainebleau – converting them from medieval structures to Renaissance beauties. He also founded the port city of Le Havre – sending out ships to America and the Far East … in competition with the Spanish and Portuguese, despite the monopoly that the papacy had established for these two powers through various papal bulls.  Thus in 1524, under Francis's sponsorship, Giovanni da Verrazzano reached today's New York City, then headed north … to claim Newfoundland for Francis.  In 1534 Francis sent Jacques Cartier to explore Quebec … then in 1541 Roberval – to begin the French settlement of Canada … and the region's conversion to Catholicism. However, the realm of European politics proved highly problematic for Francis.  In 1525 he and his army suffered a massive defeat in Italy at the hands of the Charles I's Spanish troops.  Francis was then taken to Madrid as a prisoner and released only the following year after he agreed to humiliating terms (including his abdication, the surrender of all French holdings in Italy, and the delivery of his two oldest sons as hostages to Charles's court) ... which, once free, he largely refused to honor.  However only after paying two million gold crowns to Charles did he got his sons back (four years later).  Then his war with Charles was resumed in 1536 – in alliance with the Turks – and continued all the way to Francis's death in 1547. 1Almost immediately it was recognized that rather than being a witch she had been in fact a true agent of God.  Over the centuries her popularity grew until in 1920 she was canonized as a saint by Pope Benedict XV. 2Francis was a great importer of Italian Renaissance art ... including even the person of da Vinci, who served Francis during the first three years of the king's reign (1516-1519) ... which was also the last three years of the aging artist's life. Francis I – by Jean Clouet (c. 1530) Louvre Museum - Paris ENGLAND The War of the Roses (1455-1487) The humiliating English loss in the Hundred Year' War resulted in a split within the Plantagenet dynasty between two factions:  the House of Lancaster – identified by its red rose on in heraldic shield – and the House of York – thus identified by its white rose) … a horrible dispute which came to be known as the "War of the Roses."   But the dynastic rivalry was anything but an internal English civil war … with the Lancastrians supported by the kingdoms of Scotland and France, and the Yorkers supported by the Burgundians – with the duchy of Brittany switching sides. Henry VII (r. 1485-1509) In the end, the only thing that the 32-year war achieved was the destruction of the Plantagenet family – both sides – thus opening the door for the House of Tudor, led by Henry Tudor, which in a victory at the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485), gained the crown for him and his Tudor family.  As actually a "Lancastrian," Henry married Elizabeth of York the following year, bringing the royal families together ... and moving England forward in a fresh period of peace – and thus prosperity – which Henry used (often corruptly) to work to his personal advantage. Once king, he proved to be a cautious but very focused ruler in the matters of the royal finances … putting them, through careful tax measures, back on a firm footing.  He rebuilt English power in his support of the independence of Brittany against an expansionist France.  He also helped build English industry and trade in the way he took challenged and then allied with competitors in that field, the Flemish or Dutch. Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) Henry's son (also a Henry) had the ongoing task of trying to keep the English barons under royal control ... and coming up with a male heir to receive the Tudor legacy.  He had married the aunt of Spain's King (and also Holy Roman Emperor) Charles ... a strategic move for the Tudors.  But Catherine of Aragon had succeeded in delivering only a girl, Mary. Like his father, Henry was not a man of chivalrous scruples (something more like Machiavelli's Prince ... which was becoming more the norm in political high places).  He needed a son and would do whatever was necessary to secure one.  He finally divorced Catherine (not only straining the relationship between Henry and Charles but also between Henry and the Pope ... who refused to annul Henry's marriage to Catherine).   Thus Henry broke from Rome and declared himself (instead of the Pope) the head of the Church in England.  Then to augment his treasury he not only ended all payments to Rome, he proceeded to seize the treasuries of wealthy English monasteries, selling their lands to various English supporters (including members of the rising merchant class) seeking entry into – or advancement within – the ranks of the aristocracy.  Not only did this make the Tudor monarchy rich and powerful, those who received such lands (including Henry himself) were a guarantee that the Roman Church would be hotly resisted in England in any attempt to retake its lost position.  While all of this did not put England into the Protestant camp (Henry was highly opposed to Luther's reforms … though later he took some steps in the Protestant direction) it certainly helped open the way for Protestantism to find a foothold there. In any case, further marriages (six in total!) proved no more successful in delivering Henry a strong male child to continue the Tudor line.  His sickly son Edward3 died at age sixteen after only six years of official – though hardly effective – rule. Henry could be ruthless to those who fell out of favor, Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, his Lord Chancellor (Prime Minister) dying on his way to London to be tried (and most certainly executed) for "treason" after failing to secure the annulment with Catherine.  Likewise, his replacement, Thomas Cromwell was executed for treason soon after arranging a brief and "unconsummated" marriage with an unattractive German princess.   At least his Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, would die of such charges not by Henry, but by his daughter Mary.   Politics in England was a very dangerous game. But politics abroad was just as dangerous … as Henry found himself constantly involved in wars and shifting alliances with Francis of France, Holy Roman Emperor and Spanish King Charles, or with the Scottish King James.  In the end, all that this activity accomplished was merely the emptying of Henry's royal treasury. 3Edward was born of Henry's third marriage – with Jane Seymour… who died soon after giving birth to Edward in 1537. Henry VIII – by Hans Holbein the Younger (1540) Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica - Rome Cardinal Thomas Wolsey Trinity College Thomas Cromwell – by Hans Holbein the Younger (1532-1533) Frick Collection - New York City The wives of Henry VIII Catherine of Aragon (Queen - 1509-1533) In 1533, Henry declared their marriage annulled ... because she had provided him with no male heir, only a daughter Mary (and anyway, Henry had become infatuated with Anne Boleyn) The Trial of Queen Catherine of Aragon - by Henry Nelson O'Neil (1846–1848) Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery Anne Boleyn – 1533-1536 Jane Seymour – 1536-1537  Anne of Cleves – 1540  Catherine Howard –  1540-1541 Catherine Parr – 1543-1547 SPAIN Castile At the heart of what would become the future "Spain" was the ever-expanding kingdom of Castile.  From its starting point in north-central Spain it included (by inheritance of Ferdinand III in 1230) the equally large neighboring kingdom of Leon, making it by far the largest political entity in Spain.  Thereafter, and up until 1479, only the Christian kingdoms of Portugal (to the West) and Aragon (to the East) and a fast-declining Muslim Grenada) (to the South remained outside the huge Castile domain. As was typical of the times, Castile, and its ruling House of Trastámara, found itself constantly absorbed in dynastic infighting over rights to the throne … as well as over baronial positions outside the royal family itself. Henry IV of Castile (1454-1474) Henry was something of a combination of both the Castile and Aragon legacies, his father John II of Castile and his mother Maria of Aragon … although such a marriage did not yet unite those two kingdoms into one.  Besides … personally he was a very weak ruler, letting his barons, notably the Duke of Trujillo, direct his political affairs.  Family feuds also shook his rule when he had his childless marriage with Blanche of Navarre annulled and married his first cousin Joan of Portugal (their mothers were sisters).  But Joan had an affair with a bishop … and this second marriage produced only a female heir – herself of dubious origins.   Thus it was that Henry formally recognized his half-sister Isabella, as heir to the throne of Castile. Aragon We commonly identify Aragon as a huge region in Western Spain … regained by Christian forces from the Muslims as they were pushed back southward in the Spanish Reconquista.  But actually, Aragon was early on the seat of a much larger empire reaching across the Mediterranean all the way to Greece.  It was also, in typical feudal fashion, constantly involved in a contest with other Spanish families for dominion in Spain … and with the French for control of Southern France – and ultimately also Southern Italy.  This Mediterranean dynasty and its empire reached the heights of its power in the 1200s and just prior to the end of the 1300s, when it lost its territory in Greece.  But in 1442, it was able to take the huge kingdom of Naples in Southern Italy from French Angevin control and bring it into Aragon's Mediterranean empire. Alfonso V of Aragon (r. 1416-1458) Bringing the Southern Italian Kingdom of Naples into Alfonso's Aragon Empire was a very complicated diplomatic, as well as military matter (employing some of the latest military technology) … as feudal lords, Italian urban republics and ultimately the papacy became directly involved in the process.  But ultimate success in the matter made Alfonso one of the leading political figures of his day.  He too proved to be a patron of the arts (he himself being an avid reader of classic literature) … and once his reign was secure did much to better the economic foundations of his empire. But his marriage with his cousin Maria (their fathers were brothers) proved childless … and thus his brother John (who had been governing the Spanish holdings anyway) received title to his Spanish … and his illegitimate son Ferdinand title to his Kingdom of Naples. Ferdinand I of Naples (r. 1458-1494) Ferdinand would go on to be a dominating figure in Italian – and European – politics, involving not only the French, the papacy, the powerful Venetian Empire, and other Italian city-states but also the rising power in the Eastern Mediterranean of the Ottoman Turks.   And he would turn his kingdom away from its political dependence on feudal barons … and instead on the rule of law defended by a growing royal estate – something that would become the trend of the times as Europe moved away gradually from feudalism into royal absolutism. But, like his father, he was also a major patron of the arts … something considered extremely important in the thinking of Renaissance Europe. John II of Aragon (r. 1458-1479) Alfonso's brother John would come to hold several titles:  King of Aragon, King of Navarre, and King of Sicily.  But in his case too, family conflicts over titles and jurisdictions would trouble his rule … resulting even in civil war (the Navarrese Civil War and the Catalan revolt) … as well as an ongoing fight with the French monarchy.   Overall, his greatest success as king was in having his son Ferdinand betrothed to the heir to the Castilian throne, Isabella at a very early age ... although this would be deeply challenged by other fortune-seeking families. Finally:  Spain! Ferdinand II of Aragon (1479-1516) and Isabella I of Castile (r. 1474-1504) At the end of the 1400s things came together for Spain in a dazzling way.  With the marriage of cousins Ferdinand and Isabella, popularly termed "The Catholic Monarchs"4 – thus producing the union of Castile and Aragon – Spain's rise in importance began in earnest. Ferdinand inherited all the Aragon titles (Aragon, Sardinia, Sicily, Naples and Navarre) and, by way of marriage, King of Castile and Leon.  He would of course have to fight to make good his claim to Naples and Navarre.  Catalonia would also challenge his claim.  And there would be battles within the family for this or that claim as well.  But he proved to be a tough warrior. Isabella, after many efforts were made to marry her off to this or that individual and, after securing (questionably) a papal bull allowing these cousins to marry, she and Ferdinand snuck away to get married in 1469.  Then upon receiving the throne at her half-brother Henry's death in 1474, she had to face all sorts of challenges to her right to the throne … including even a war with the Portuguese – which dragged on for years, on the land and on the sea.  And the Portuguese seemed to be able to hold onto the claim that the Atlantic belonged solely to the Portuguese to exploit. But the Genoese naval explorer Columbus was able to secure support from Isabella for a venture he claimed would give Spain access to the Far East, by heading West across the Atlantic.  His subsequent discovery of America in 1492 would then give Spain a countering claim to Portugal's Atlantic monopoly … leading to an agreement, the Treaty of Tordesillas5 (1494), between the two powers as to which part of the Atlantic venture belonged to which of the two powers – and had it endorsed in 1505 by Pope Julius II.  In this treaty it was agreed that all land to the east of a line of longitude – thus constituting something of an eastern hemisphere – would be Portugal's to exploit.  All lands in the western hemisphere would be Spain's to exploit. The year 1492 was also a very big year for the Spanish in another way:  it marked the military defeat of the Muslim Kingdom of Grenada … and the completion of Spanish expansion across the Iberian Peninsula (Portugal, of course excepted).  The Muslims (Moros) – along with the Jewish population in Spain – would subsequently be expelled from Spain … unless they agreed to convert to Christianity.6   Indeed, in 1478 Isabella had established the Spanish Inquisition … to hunt down those who could not be considered "authentic" Christians within the Spanish realm.  And after the decision to force the conversion of Jews and Muslims, the Inquisition found itself focusing in particular those who had converted from Judaism or Islam to Christianity – and whose "conversion" was highly suspect. "Mad" Joanna of Castile and Philip "The Handsome" of Habsburg Ferdinand and Isabella's daughter and sole surviving heir unexpectedly ended up being their daughter Joanna – who had married Philip of Habsburg.  She was reputed to be insane, supposedly driven mad by the death of so many family members around her – and because of her husband's constant infidelities.  She was thus institutionalized – placed in isolation at a convent ... and held there until she finally died at age 75. Charles of Habsburg (1500-1558) This allowed her sixteen-year-old son Charles (who actually had grown up in his father's Habsburg land of Dutch-speaking Flanders) to take the throne directly as Charles I, King of Spain ... and three years later the vast Habsburg holdings in the Netherlands, Burgundy and Germany as Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor – and Archduke of Austria.  Charles also received title to the Spanish lands in Southern Italy ... and the popes also named him King in Germany (Pope Leo X) and King in Italy (Pope Clement VII).  This undoubtedly made him the most powerful monarch in Europe.  Added to this was the constant flow of gold from his vast Spanish holdings in America, making Charles also (at least potentially) the wealthiest man in Europe.  But his wars were very, very costly. Charles also was a major player in the Catholic Counter-Reformation against the Protestants … in particular in his effort to silence the German "nuisance" Luther.  As imperial "Defender of the Faith," he supported strongly the three popes who presided over the Council of Trent (1545-1563), called to tighten the definitions of Catholic theology and practice.  He supported also the creation of the Jesuits, a special order of soldier-priest-monks called to teach and enforce papal doctrine ... and in the process to retake from the Protestants as much territory of Old Christendom as possible in order to place it back under papal control. All of this kept him busy traveling from state to state within the Holy Roman Empire and his Spanish territories (he never established a capital city of his own).  He assisted Venice in its defense against the Turks … but was not able to hold off the Turks in their assault on Budapest in Hungary. And as far as the Spanish holdings in America went, he managed land assignments there along traditional feudal lines … but also sent priests to his American colonies – to bring them into the Catholic Church … and to protect them as "his subjects" against massive exploitation by the local Spanish lords.  Thus to the mix of a rising Spanish feudal system in America in which Spanish noblemen ruled the surrounding land and its inhabitants from their feudal manors or "haciendas," Charles added the political oversight of his colonies through the church's hierarchy of priests and bishops.  These were called on to help keep the American social order under the control of the political authority back in Spain. At the same time, he moved Spain into position as major commercial competitor with the Portuguese in the African slave trade with the Caribbean Islands.  Slaves were not of the same political-legal order as the peasants (Hispanic or Indian) … and thus did not receive the same royal protection. Then, most oddly, in 1556 Charles simply stepped down from his positions, turning over the rule of Spain to his son Philip and the Holy Roman Empire to his brother Ferdinand.  Now the Habsburgs had two parallel dynasties – generally fairly cooperative with each other.  The Charles retired to a monastery … and died the following year (1558). 4Pope Alexander VI (himself a Spaniard) gave recognition to these two monarchs as vital "defenders of the faith" by giving them the title, the Most Catholic Monarchs.  It was a title that they and their descendants were particularly proud of. 5The line, running approximately 46 degrees west by today's measure, basically assigned all of the Americas to Spain … except for the coastline extending east into the Atlantic – which comprises most of today's Brazilian coastline. 6The Spanish Inquisition would continue its work all the way up until it was finally abolished in 1834. A  young Spanish King / Holy Roman Emperor Charles V of Habsburg Paris, Musée du Louvre Charles I (Spain) and V (Holy Roman Empire) - by Anthony Van Dyke (c. 1620) Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1548) traditionally attributed to Titian, today attributed to Lambert Sustris Munich, Alte Pinakothek Charles V at Mühlberg - by Titian (1548) Madrid, Museo del Prado Charles's brother Ferdinand I (1531) - by Barthel Beham Ferdinand in 1531, the year of his election as King of the Romans Private collection Ferdinand I (1503-1564) - Holy Roman Emperor (1558-1564) - by Hans Bockberger the Elder Ferdinand had been serving his older brother Charles V as his stand-in in the Holy Roman or Eastern Empire (Österreich) since the 1520s Kunsthistorisches Museum - Vienna VENICE:  THE EARLIEST OF THE GRAND ITALIAN STATES At the time of the Renaissance, Italy was not a nation, but instead a territory with varying political systems … under constant dispute for control among various dynasties, French, Spanish, German as well as Italian.  Southern Italy, with its political center at Naples, was under what had to be considered "Spanish" or Aragonese dynastic rule … challenged by French political interests.  Northern Italy, with Milan as the leading city, was under local rule … except when the French were attempting to bring the region under French rule.  Then there was the huge territory in Central and Eastern Italy identified as the "Papal States" and under direct papal rule … the papacy changing hands constantly as various families vied for this very important position.  Then there were the "republics" or city states of Northwestern Italy … Florence, Siena, Pisa, Mantua, Ferrara, Verona (and, at times, Milan) belonging to this category.  Then, as we have seen, there were the huge maritime domains of Genoa and Venice located at the upper edges, East and West, of the Italian peninsula. Thus it is very hard to "summarize" Italian politics during this period … except to say that dynastic conflicts and the ongoing battle between the Guelf and Ghibelline coalitions were constant and quite violent.   A view of Venice Scala - Florence Members of the Vendramin Family Venerating a Relic of the True Cross - by Vittorio Carpaccio - 1494 Accademia of Venice The Venetian Doge (1501-1521) Leonardo Loredan - by Belinni National Gallery - London Doges' Palace, Venice (1330s and 1400s) (facade on the jetty, 1300s; balcony 1404; facade on the Piazzetta, 1424-1442) Canaletto - The Doge's Palace – Venice (ca. 1730) The Royal Collection - Windsor Castle Canaletto - The Rialto Bridge from the South Rome, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Antica Canaletto - The Campo di Rialto – Venice (ca. 1730) THE MEDICI AND RENAISSANCE FLORENCE Siena It was Siena, not Florence, that first took the lead in the development of the very progressive and enormously prosperous region of Tuscany (the name derived from the ancient Etruscans based there).  The town of Siena was the location of a university dating back to 1240, the city prospered enormously from the salt, mining and wool trade … and from the banking business supporting this wealth in trade.  And it was governed by its own Republic (founded in 1125) … until 1555, when it lost a major war against Spain – and its long-standing Tuscan rival, Florence. The Medici of Florence But it was the Medici family of Florence that would come to dominance – not only in Tuscany, but throughout much of Italy … and eventually even Europe itself.   The family started its rise to prominence in Florence's wool guild as textile merchants … eventually branching into the banking business as well.  And it would be the latter occupation, as bankers, that would bring the Medici family to enormous wealth … and power. Giovanni di Bicci de' Medici (1360-1429) The rise of the Medici to power began under Giovanni, who founded the family bank in 1397 … in competition with the Albizzi family of Florence – who had previously taken command of the Tuscan banking realm when the Bonsignori family of Siena went bankrupt a century earlier in 1298.  Giovanni was able to extend the Medici banking position by placing banking branches in Venice, Geneva … and most importantly, in Rome (and briefly in Naples) … managing the Church's finances.  This of course would bring the Medici into fierce competition with other banking families for the position as financial foundation of the Church. Cosimo di Giovanni de' Medici (1389-1464) The battle between the Medici and Albizzi was especially a bitter one, the Albizzi – in alliance with another powerful Florentine family, the Strozzi – succeeding in having Giovanni's son, Cosimo, exiled by Florence's Signoria (city council) in 1433.  But when Cosimo relocated to Venice, most of Florence's banking dynamics went with him … forcing Florence a year later to lift the exile order and return Cosimo to Florence.  From then on Florentine politics found itself under the firm direction of Cosimo … and much of the fast-rising art-world under his enormous financial patronage.   Cosimo was also to send a condottiero (a commander of an army-for-hire), Francesco Sforza, to Milan to secure matters after the death of the head of the Visconti family governing that city.  Francesco had married the Visconti daughter Bianca years earlier … Bianca being also the sole heir to the Visconti family.  They would henceforth rule Milan together.  And thus Milan and Florence would also form an important political bond. Lorenzo di Piero de' Medici (1449-1492) The Medici dynamic would reach its height under Cosimo's grandson, Lorenzo, also known as "Lorenzo the Magnificent."  Lorenzo was a huge patron of the arts – supporting Verrocchio, da Vinci, Botticelli, Michelangelo and many others.   Lorenzo's diplomacy also played a huge role in bringing peace to Italy … most notably through the Treaty of Lodi (1454), ending the war between Milan and Venice.  On the basis of this treaty the Italic League was founded.  The Kingdom of Naples and the Papal states soon joined the League … as did many other Italian city-states.  This therefore brought to Italy a relatively long period of peace, one absolutely vital to the development of Renaissance Italy! Of course his political and financial success made Lorenzo many very jealous enemies … and an attempt was made on his life in 1478 (the Pazzi conspiracy), which wounded him and killed his brother Giullano.  Lorenzo survived … but now found himself in bitter conflict with Pope Sixtus IV, who had authorized the assassination attempt (Rovere family versus Medici family?).  When the Medici fought back, Sixtus seized what Medici financial assets he could grab, put Florence under an interdict (the Florentines had rallied to Lorenzo's support), allied with the duke of Naples, and had an army sent to conquer Florence.  The war dragged on … until Lorenzo went to Naples and put himself at the mercy of the king (Ferdinand I) and negotiated a peace finally. Then things settled back down … so that Italy could continue forward in peace.  And this it did so, until shortly after Lorenzo's death in 1492.  Florentines routing the Sienese at the Battle of San Romano – 1432 (by Paolo Uccello – c. 1438-1440) National Gallery, London The "Carta della Catena":  a 15th century view of Florence (c. 1490) Florence, Museo de Firenze Com'era The Medicis of Florence Lorenzo de' Medici – bust by Andrea del Verrocchio (1480) Samuel Kress Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. OTHER ITALIAN CITY-STATES AND THEIR "FIRST FAMILIES" The Sforzas of Milan Francesco Sforza – Duke of Milan  Bianca (Visconti) Sforza – his wife Milan, Pinacoteca di Brera Ludovico Sforza and his wife Beatrice – before the Virgin Mary and Christ Child Ludovico was a major patron of Leonardo da Vinci, Bramante and other artists; unfortunately he was not as wise politically as he was artistically, inviting the French into Italy – only to be undone by them later Milan, Pinacoteca di Brera The Gonzagas of Mantua Andrea Mantegna's painting of the family of Ludovico III Gonzaga, marquess of Mantua Mantua, Ducal Palace The Montefeltros of Urbino Frederico da Montefeltro, Duke of Urbino – and his son, Guidobaldo (c. 1475) Urbino, Galleria Nationale della Marche Franciscan monk and mathematician Luca Pacioli - by Jacopo de' Barbari (with patron and student Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, duke of Urbino) Naples, Galleria Nazionale di Capodimonte The Strotzis of Naples (and Florence) Merchant-banker Filippo Strozzi He developed a financial empire in Naples after the Medici drove the Strozzi family out of Florence in 1434  Paris, Musée du Louvrea name="Papacy" THE PAPACY As already suggested, the Church chose to join the political action which was disrupting Europe at the time.  Certainly there were those who objected to the Church taking up such a worldly manner.  But by and large, the view of the Church – notably of its popes, who during the 1400s could be very worldly fellows – was that intellectual revolution and political intrigue were things to be pursued.  Indeed, the papacy was as much an object of dynastic competition as the kingdoms and republics were proving to be.  Families such as the Roveres, the Borgias, the Medici, constantly vied for the all-important papal appointment by the College of Cardinals.  Thus the church was as active a player in the Renaissance political game as were the European kingdoms, duchies and republics. Pope Sixtus IV (pope 1471-1484) For instance, Pope Sixtus IV (Francesco della Rovere) was both a grand patron of the arts and letters, constructing the Vatican's Sistine Chapel and developing the Vatical Archives … as well as bringing various artists to Rome to develop Rome's own artistic age.  But, as we have seen, he was an organizer of the Pazzi conspiracy, designed to destroy the Medici family.   He also annulled the decrees of the Council of Constance, which had tried to bring the Church under the control of an ecumenical council rather than under the singular rule of the pope.  And he authorized the Spanish Inquisition in 1478 … in an effort to eliminate those of the Jewish community who had chosen to convert to Christianity rather than face expulsion … and whose true Christian loyalties were thus highly suspect.  In all likelihood, this round of the Inquisition was in part of an effort of the Spanish to demonstrate clearly that their former tolerance of Muslims and Jews (which had earned the Spanish Christians the reputation in the rest of the Christendom as being less that "pure" Christians) had come to an end. Innocent VIII (pope 1484-1492) Sixtus was followed by Innocent VIII (Giovanni Battista Cybo).  As the son of the viceroy of Naples (the next most important person behind King Ferdinand I), Cybo worked his way up the clerical ranks until, with Rovere's help – and despite King Ferdinand of Naples' opposition (Ferdinand wanted Rodrigo Borgia as pope) – he became pope. Alexander VI (pope 1492-1503) Then the Borgia family found itself back in power when Rodrigo Borgia was elected to the papacy as Alexander VI.   Part of the prominent Borgia family of Aragon, Rodrigo became a cardinal after his uncle was elected as Pope Callixtus III (1455-1458), and he served the next four popes in various offices – until his election as pope in 1492.  Alexander was a strong supporter of the Church and its political powers … but also a strong supporter of the Borgia family and its powers as well.  And personally, he let no lust stand in his way! His illegitimate son, Cesare, became a prominent condottiero … after having served briefly as a Catholic cardinal upon his father's election as pope.  But he resigned to serve French King Louis XII in the latter's military ventures in both Northern and Southern Italy … aided immensely in taking on his own political realm in the process through his father's influence.  But after his father Rodrigo's death in 1503 – and the election of a political rival Giuliano Della Rovere as Pope Julius II (nephew of Pope Sixtus IV) – Cesare's fortunes would change … despite his very strong military talents.  Cesare would eventually become the model for Machiavelli's Prince … a strong, ruthless leader – who Machiavelli hoped would unite Italy.  Eventually Cesare was betrayed and murdered (1507) in one of the political games shaking Italy at the time. Cesare's sister Lucrezia was considered quite the beauty, married three times, had affairs with others, and was mother of ten children … and was also very much a part of the program of political intrigue in the Borgia family's quest for power and status. And so things went in Renaissance Italy! Julius II (1503-1513) Not only did Pope Julius take on rather successfully the Borgia family but, through much clever political intrigue, was able to extend the power of the papacy in a supposed effort to bring some degree of peace and stability to Italy.  He brought Swiss Guards to serve as his military arm, conducted treaties of military alliance with various European princes, hired the artist Michelangelo to do the famous paintings in the Sistine Chapel … and ordered the selling of indulgences (payments to the Church designed to speed the sinner through Purgatory … and onward to Heaven after death) in order to finance the building of the massive Saint Peter's Basilica.  Again … his role as pope was very much more a matter of personal politics than moral or spiritual leadership. Leo X (1513-1521) Giovanni di Lorenzo de' Medici, in becoming Pope Leo X, finally brought the Medici family to full center stage in terms of church politics.  He was a massive spender of church funds – using such funds extensively to bring his nephew to power in Urbino as its duke – and having to sell "indulgences"7 to the faithful in order to cover the massive costs involved in building the new St. Peter's Basilica.   He would also be the pope who would answer Luther's call (his 95 Theses) for church reform with the papal bull of 1520 condemning Luther and his challenge … helping to break the ranks of Christian Europe into two fiercely opposing theological parties of Catholics and Protestants. 7An indulgence was a way of paying for one's sins … usually an act of confession, prayer or good works.   But by the time of Leo, they were monetary contributions made by the people to the papacy specifically for the work on St. Peter's Basilica … contributions that would – according to the Pope's Grand Commissioner (chief indulgence salesman), Johann Tetzel – help speed their soul through purgatory on the road to heaven. The Notorious Borgias (originally Spanish) His Holiness, Rodrigo Borgia, Pope Alexander VI (1492-1503) Appartamento Borgia, Vatican City Caesar Borgia – son of Pope Alexander VI (the inspiration for Machiavelli's Prince) Bergamo, Accademia Carrara di Belle Arti Lucrezia Borgia – daughter of Alexander VI and sister of Caesar Borgia Portrayed as St. Catherine of Alexandria - by Pinturicchio Sala del Santi - Appartamento Borgia, Vatican City THE "ITALIAN WARS" 1494-1559 In 1494, Charles VIII of France saw an opportunity, and invaded Italy on the basis of a dynastic claim to Milan.  This would set off a series of "Italian Wars," involving claims and counter-claims to Italian territory of the French Valois and the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs – in alliance with one or another of the Italian city-states … and with the popes deeply involved in the process.  The whole thing turned very ugly … and very lasting in that ugliness. Charles VIII and his French troops enter Florence – November 17, 1494 – by Francesco Granacci Ufizzi, Florence THE TURKS ON THE RISE IN THE EAST Mehmed I (r. 1413-1420) The Ottomans' humiliating defeat by Tamerlane's forces was followed by a decade of civil war (the "Interregnum") … as Bayezid’s sons battled among themselves for the position of Ottoman Sultan.  Finally in 1413, one of the sons, Mehmed I, emerged victorious and was able to reunite the Ottoman Sultanate.  Three of the brothers were killed … though another brother Mustafa and nephew continued to challenge him during his reign.   Under Mehmed’s direction, Albania in the West and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia in the East were added to the Ottoman holdings.  Murad II (r. 1421-1444 and 1446-1451) To secure his own power, Murad had to defeat his uncle Mustafa, released from captivity by the Byzantine Emperor Manuel II in order to block Murad.  In defeating Mustafa, Murad received significant help from the Genoese navy!  An angry Murad then turned on Constantinople … and backed off only when paid a huge tribute by the Byzantines.  At the same time, he took on and crushed numerous beyliks in Anatolia that had been set up by Tamerlane. The Byzantine Emperor then turned over to Venice some Byzantine lands … in the effort to get Venice (a former Ottoman ally) to block further Ottoman expansion.  In response Murad looked to some of his Christian allies in the Balkans to help him in what had become a Balkan War … which eventually simply came to a halt (1444).  Murad then retired … and turned his government over to his young son, Mehmed. Sensing an opportunity in this, Pope Eugenius IV soon called for another crusade … designed to drive the Turkish "infidel" out of Europe.  This in turn brought Murad back out of retirement … to direct Ottoman operations alongside his son Mehmed.  Meanwhile, Venice and Serbia had seemed unable to decide on which side to support … weakening greatly the "Christian effort.   Also, having trouble with Turkish noblemen within his own domain, Murad built to greater importance the devşirme – the system by which Christian subjects were forced to turn over (often as many as 20 percent) of their male children … to serve as what would become highly privileged Janissaries within the Ottoman ranks.  With full reliance on Janissary military support, Murad was able to bring his Turkish noblemen under full control … and have at arms a military force of enormous strength. In 1448 Murad’s troops defeated the Albanians at the second battle of Kosovo … bringing the Balkan powers (Thrace, Macedonia, Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia and now Albania) under Ottoman mastery. Only the city of Constantinople, the last position held by the dying Byzantine Empire, still found itself unconquered by the Ottomans. But that was about to change. Mehmed II "the Conqueror" (1451-1481) Soon after his father died (1451) Mehmed prepared to take on Constantinople, building Rumeli Fortress near Constantinople to oversee operations.  When he was ready, in only a matter of weeks (April-May 1453), Constantinople was finally conquered. Mehmed proved to be a very wise ruler.  He chose to be merciful to the inhabitants, because, recognizing both its strategic and symbolic importance, Mehmed intended to make Constantinople his new multi-ethnic (Muslim, Christian, Jewish) Ottoman capital.  He also set up the millet system allowing each religious group making up his empire to continue to live according to their respective religious laws, customs, languages under their own respective leaders … operating however in full support of the presiding authority of the Ottoman Sultan. The generosity of these terms in fact guaranteed that support (even from Christians).  But it caused grumbling among the old Turkish nobility, leading Mehmed to move even more decidedly in the effort to replace traditional feudal support of the unreliable Turkish noblemen with the devşirme as the basis of his rule. Selim I "The Grim" (r. 1512-1520) Over the run of the next series of sultans, Turkish expansion slowed up … the Sultans having constantly to deal with rebellious Turkish noblemen (and family members) within the Ottoman Empire.  Finally, under Selim I, the Ottoman empire was able to get back in the business of Ottoman expansion, extending Ottoman rule into Egypt and northern Iraq ... and making the Turkish navy a major force in the Eastern Mediterranean.   Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566)  Suleiman was a contemporary of Charles of Habsburg and French King Francis ... and adversary – or ally – of the two in the rough and tumble European diplomacy of those times.   Suleiman's troops expanded Ottoman power north against the Serbs and Hungarians, and reached as far north as Vienna, the seat of Charles's eastern empire.  This assault against Charles's position in East Europe rather naturally made Suleiman a military ally of Francis.  They joined forces in Hungary in support of the Turks … and along the Mediterranean coast in the area between Southeastern France and Northeastern Italy in support of France. And although Suleiman ultimately failed to capture Vienna, his two assaults there gave Luther and the Schmalkaldic League the opportunity to build up their forces in Germany … ready to face the full wrath of Charles, the "Defender of the Faith."  And Francis, though anti-Protestant, even allied with the German Schmalkaldic League against Charles.  So things went in those days. The Ottoman Empire:  1481, 1520, 1566 and 1683 Wikipedia - "Ottoman Empire" The Fall of Constantinople - 1453 Mehmed II "The Conqueror" enters Constantinople - 1453 - by Fausto Zonaro A 15th century Janissary - drawing by Gentile Bellini Suleiman's Janissary troops fighting the Knights of St. John at the Siege of Rhodes - 1522 The Turkish threat to the Habsburg holdings in the East (including the Habsburg Eastern capital at Vienna) Suleiman defeating the Hungarians at Mohacs - 1526 Another perspective on the Battle of Mohacs - 1526 An Ottoman depiction of the siege of Vienna of 1529 - from the 16th century Hachette Art Museum - Istanbul Go on to the next section:  The beginning of the Age of Exploration   Miles H. Hodges