6. ISLAM AND THE WEST DURING THOSE DARK DAYS

THE CAROLINGIAN REVIVAL ca. 800

The Muslim conquest of Spain (Muslim "al-Andalus") By the early 700s, there seemed to be no stopping the spread of Islam.  It headed West across the Mediterranean coastline of North Africa, ... under the conqueror Tariq reaching the Atlantic and then turning north across the narrow Gibraltar straits1 in 711 to head into Christian Spain.  Tragically, Visigothic Spain at the time was deeply caught up in a civil war among the Visigoths.  Thus the Muslims ended up rolling easily over the entire Visigothic kingdom after defeating the Visigothic army at the Guadalete River in 712.2 Then soon joined by a larger Arab army led by Musa ibn Nusayr, Muslim governor of Ifriqiya, the two Muslim groups spread Umayyad rule even deeper into Spain over the next seven years ... even capturing Visigothic Septimania in coastal southern France. However a small group of Christian Visigoths were able to hold off the Muslim onslaught by retreating into the Cantabrian mountainous in the north of the Iberian Peninsula... where, restructured as the small Kingdom of Asturias, Christians would take refuge for the next few centuries. And thus was the foundation of a huge Islamic Spain, then known as al-Andalus, with its capital at Cordoba. Action north of the Pyrenees Mountains into Southern France Duke Odo and the Battle of Toulouse (721).  In 721 the Umayyad governor al Samh decided to complete the conquest of Southern France by heading west from Umayyad controlled Narbonne in coastal Septimania (where al Samh had established his capital) with an immense Muslim army.  His goal was Toulouse, the capital of Christian Aquitaine.  He had almost brought the city of Toulouse to defeat when he and his army were suddenly surrounded by an equally immense Christian army led by Odo, Duke of Aquitaine.  Surprised Muslims fled or were cut down in such huge numbers that the battle amounted to a very bloody, very humiliating defeat for the Umayyad army (though at a cost almost as high among Odo's Christians).3  The Umayyad governor al Samh escaped, but died soon thereafter from his wounds. 1Gibraltar is named after him: Jabal-al-Tariq or “mountain of Tariq.” 2The militias 3Muslim tradition stated that the Muslims lost over 350,000 soldiers ... and the Christians near that number at 300,000.  The number seems to be probably a huge exaggeration ... but in any case, very indicative of the huge loss that both sides experienced at this battle.  Also, the Muslim historians themselves placed greater strategic significance on their strategic loss at the hands of Odo at Toulouse than they did on the disaster they experienced eleven years later at Tours at the hands of Charles Martel. 4Muslim tradition stated that the Muslims lost over 350,000 soldiers ... and the Christians near that number at 300,000.  The number seems to be probably a huge exaggeration ... but in any case, very indicative of the huge loss that both sides experienced at this battle.  Also, the Muslim historians themselves placed greater strategic significance on their strategic loss at the hands of Odo at Toulouse than they did on the disaster they experienced eleven years later at Tours at the hands of Charles Martel. CHARLES MARTEL – DEFENDER AND EVENTUAL KING OF FRANCE Frankish governor Charles Martel enters the picture Despite Odo's huge victory over the Muslims at Toulouse, the Umayyads were able to regroup and continue their raiding of Odo's Aquitaine from their well supplied coastal base at Narbonne  At one point Odo attempted an alliance with the frustrated Berbers (as much in defense against the expansive Franks to the North as the expansive Umayyads to the East).  But this did not seem to suffice to fend off the Umayyad Arabs and the situation grew so desperate that Odo finally appealed to his Frankish rival to the north, Charles Martel, for help.  Charles agreed, on the condition that Odo submit to Charles' authority. The Austrasian Mayor of the Palace, Pepin of Herestal, had been directed by one of his wives, Plectrude, to appoint their grandson Theudoald to replace him at his death ... ultimately 714.  But at that point, Theudoald was a mere 8-year-old child.  Then Charles, one of Pepin's sons by another wife, escaped the imprisonment imposed on him by Plectrude, and moved decisively to put down rebellions among the Neustrian nobles (the Frankish civil war of 715-718) ... restoring the unity of Francia – and making very clear who was exactly in charge in Francia.  Graciously, Plectrude was sent to a convent and Theudoald lived out his life under his uncle Charles's protection.   Then – as the Austrasian Mayor of the Palace – Charles proclaimed Chlothar IV as King of Austrasia ... and replaced Rigobert as Archbishop of Reims with a political ally of his, Milo, Bishop of Trier.  But when Chlothar died Charles switched his support to Chlothar's rival, Chilperic ... on the condition of being named Mayor of the Palace for all of Francia.  Then in the name of King Chilperic he went conquering to the East in Germany, bringing Alemannia and Bavaria under Frankish rule.  Then when Chilperic died, Charles brought the young Theuderic IV to the throne ... though keeping real power in his own hands.  Meanwhile he continued the military task of bringing kingdoms both at home and abroad under his rule.  By 730 he had a wide realm solidly under his control. At the same time, Charles had been professionalizing his Frankish troop.  In those days, volunteer troops, the basis of most tribal armies, would only serve the short period between the time when crops were established and growing and then when they had to be harvested.  Charles instead paid his troops ... by confiscating the wealth of the churches and monasteries in his realm – bringing on him the danger of excommunication by Catholic authorities. But having a professional – and well-tested – army available in 732 would be a surprise to the Muslims ... and the possible salvation of Western Christianity (the Church would recognize this soon enough!).  At the same time the Muslims were not particularly observant of how well the Franks under formerly Pepin and now Charles were growing as a Christian military power. That would be a huge mistake. The Battle of Tours/Poitiers (732) In 732 the Umayyads under Abd al Rahman undertook a massive invasion of Odo's Aquitaine – this time delivering Odo a crushing blow ... and then heading north towards the Loire Valley, burning and plundering as they went, with the wealthy abbey of Saint Martin of Tours as their next objective.  Suddenly, just north of Poitiers, they ran into Charles Martel's well positioned and highly experienced army blocking the route to Tours.  For seven days the Muslims attempted small skirmishes to draw out the Franks ... or at least dislodge them from their well defended position.  Finally on the seventh day the Muslim cavalry charged Charles's infantry ... only to find Charles' troops surprisingly unyielding.  Then a rumor spread among the Muslims that some Franks had raided their base camp to steal the plunder and free the slaves they had taken at Bordeaux ... and groups of Muslim troops broke off the battle to retreat to the base camp.  But the retreat turned into an undisciplined rout ... with Abd al Rahman himself killed in the retreat.  At the dawn of the next day the Franks were surprised to discover the Muslim camp abandoned. Continuing Muslim attacks Umayyads under a new governor would attempt another large invasion of Francia in 735 ... and reach northeastward into Burgundy ... even as far north as Lyons.  Charles Martel would counter with attacks into Septimania (736 and 739), taking various cities as he went ... but fail to dislodge the Muslims at Narbonne. The Muslims would, in fact, remain in Narbonne for another 20 years. Berber rebellion In the meantime, huge communities of Muslim Berbers and Arabs had been brought to settle al-Andalus, with the Berbers being assigned the areas of the north most susceptible to Christian counterattacks ... a matter of some bitterness infecting the relationship between the Muslim Arabs and Berbers.  In fact Berber rebellions were frequent, especially one that took place across Spain and North Africa in 740 ... which was put down only in 742 by an Arab Syrian army and then occupied by Syrian governors.  The latter strengthened the Muslim hold over Spain ... but also formed the foundation for a number of rather autonomous feudal estates. Alfonso I starts the Spanish Reconquista Meanwhile, the Berber rebellion and the Berber evacuation of the frontline against Asturias – as well as the humiliating thrashings the Umayyads received at Toulouse and Tours – allowed Christian King Alfonso I (ruled Asturias 739-757) to take over the abandoned Berber forts in northern Spain and add the provinces of Galicia (740) and Leon (754) to his northern kingdom. The Reconquista or "reconquering" of Spain by the Christians had thus begun.  It would take another 650 years to finish the job.  Map showing the growth of the Frankish Kingdom (From:  William R. Shepherd, "The growth of Frankish power, 481–814," Historical Atlas, 1926 edition, p. 53) Charles de Steuben, Bataille de Poitiers, en octobre 732 Musée du château de Versailles, France THE RETREAT OF THE UMAYYAD DYNASTY FROM THE EAST The End of the Umayyad Caliphate in Syria (750) Meanwhile, huge problems developed for the Umayyads when a member of the Hashemite group, Al-Saffah put forward his own personal claim to dominion over the Islamic Ummah ... on the basis of his direct descent from an uncle of Muhammad named Abbas (thus giving a name to him and his future dynasty as the "Abbasids").  He also cultivated an ever-widening power base among the Persians, who resented the pretensions of the Arab aristocracy, considering desert Arabs to be naturally inferior to the those born to what was clearly the superior Persian civilization.  Thus a bit of nationalism (Persian versus Arab) was rising within the world of Islam ... a nationalism that al-Saffah was glad to exploit in order to bring himself to power.5 In 747 the Abbasid military seized control from the Umayyad governor in Persia ... and under the command of the Persian general Abu Muslim moved their troops westward, driving back the Umayyad forces facing them.  In 749 the Abbasids were so bold as to declare their leader al-Saffah as the new caliph (749-754) and the following year met and defeated a huge Umayyad army in northern Iraq. The Umayyad caliph was able to escape to Egypt, but was caught and beheaded ... thus bringing the Umayyad caliphate in Damascus fully to an end. Now began the eradication of Umayyad power everywhere ... in a highly brutal fashion – including the slaughter of 80 members of the Umayyad clan leadership at a banquet supposedly called to work out an Arab-like compromise. At this point the central seat of Islamic power was moved East from Damascus in Syria to Baghdad in Persia ... also bringing Islam under greater Persian cultural influence (art, music, literature).  And although the Abbasids used all the Shi'ite support they could gather ... they would remain staunchly Sunni in character. The Umayyads Continue to Rule in Isolation in Spain for the Next Seven Centuries Abd al-Rahman I.  Only one Umayyad, Abd al-Rahman, escaped the slaughter of his kinsmen ... and made his way to al-Andalus (Spain).  Here he took control of the Islamic government at Cordoba and declared himself Emir or Governor, of a fully sovereign Emirate operating independently of the Abbasid Caliphate seated at Baghdad. But his rule was not secure ... either along the north with the border with the Christian principalities nor to the south across the straits of Gibraltar in Afriqiya (Africa). The emirs after him had an even harder time holding onto their power .... for by 900 the power of the Umayyad Emir did not extend much beyond the capital of Cordoba itself. Abd al-Rahman III.  Then in 912, Abd al-Rahman III was able to bring all of al-Andalus and parts of Northwestern Africa back under Umayyad power ... restoring the region to a peace that it had not enjoyed for generations ... and taking for himself the title of Caliph. This brought the Umayyad Caliphate to a level equaling even the Shi'ite Fatamid Caliphate based in Tunisia, the Umayyad's major competitor for control of North Africa. For the next century the region grew greatly prosperous, expanding its trade ... and strengthening the character of its intellectual and artistic culture ... to a level unsurpassed in the rest of Islam ... and to the great admiration of even Christian Europe. 5This Persian spirit of hostility towards their Arab overlords was a major reason that the Persians identified themselves with the minority Shi'ites, in opposition to the majority (and largely Arab) Sunnis.  Persia or modern Iran even today takes very seriously this same quite hostile – and quite nationalist – Shi'ite position. THE SPANISH RECONQUISTA GAINS MOMENTUM The gradual breakdown of Umayyad power in Spain However a civil war among the Umayyads greatly weakened their power ... and little by little, during the 970s al-Mansur (known to the West as Almanzor) – the vizier or advisor to a very young Umayyad Caliph Hisham – took ever greater control over the affairs of state ... until by 980 he was in total control of the caliphate.  With his incredible energy he took on the Christian states in Northern Spain ... winning a number of battles ... but thereby driving the Christians into a greater unity of effort against him. Then when al Mansur died in 1002, his first son ruled a short six years before dying … and a very ambitious half-brother took over, even trying to take the title of caliph away from Hisham. This precipitated a huge civil war among the Muslims... which in turn by 1030 had broken the Muslim state into a number of now fiercely competing Muslim taifa or principalities – thus shattering Umayyad power and bringing the Umayyad caliphate to an end (1031). The Spanish Reconquista gains momentum This in turn now gave the Christian kingdoms (Asturias, Leon, Castile, Navarre and Aragon) the opportunity to begin their advance (the Reconquista or "reconquest") against the various Islamic states ... a process which would continue over the next 450 years until the last Muslim taifa or state of Granada was overthrown in 1492, closing out permanently the long Muslim presence in Spain (also the year of the Spanish-sponsored discovery of America by Columbus!). El Cid.6  A Christian Castilian knight of the second half of the 1000s would play a huge symbolic role in this process of the Christian reconquering of Spain … although for his personal traits as a warrior – rather than on the basis of any full loyalty to the Christian cause!  In fact, Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar served both local Christian and Muslim lords … depending on the various shifts in his personal political status.  Nonetheless, "El Cid" would not only come to be a major icon (even down to today) as an agent of the Reconquista … but would also exemplify the extreme complexity of the Muslim-Christian mix that dominated so much of Spain for seven centuries.  In many important ways, a Muslim-Christian  Spain would leave an intellectual- cultural legacy that would run deep within a reviving post-Roman Christian world … in close conjunction with the Muslim impact on Western culture that would also come to Europe via the Christian crusades to the Muslim Middle East, crusades that were about to break forth also at the closing of the 1000s. 6From al-Sayyid:  An Arabic political title meaning "the Lord" – received by Rodrigo in his military service to the Muslim King of the Taifa of Zaragoza. THE FOUNDING OF THE CAROLINGIAN DYNASTY Charles Martel's legacy In 737, Theuderic, King of the Franks, died ... and Charles Martel neither took the royal title for himself nor selected another member of the declining Merovingian family to take the position.  The position of King remained vacant for the rest of Charles's days. But of course Charles was totally in charge of the politics of this vast kingdom ... principally by forcing the rather self governing dukes and counts to acknowledge his sovereign rule over them, or by personal appointments of new dukes and counts ... not infrequently achieved by brutal military action.  However he continued to respect the relative autonomy of Odo in Aquitaine ... and his son Hunald who took title as Duke of Aquitaine when Odo died in 735. Charles was also a very active agent of the Catholic Church ... providing heavy support to (Saint) Boniface as archbishop of Charles's extensive holdings east of the Rhine River ... with Boniface offering in return strong church support for Charles's rule. Pepin the Short (or "Lesser") In 740, a year before his death, Charles designated his two sons as governors of his extensive kingdom: the older Carloman receiving Austrasia, Alemannia and Thuringia and the younger Pepin receiving Neustria, Burgundy, and Provence.   Though both sons were devout Christians, educated by the monks of St. Denis (Paris), the quite pious Carloman in 747 took up monastic life at Monte Casino (Italy), leaving all of Francia to Pepin. Then an "understanding" developed between Pepin and Pope Zachary in 751, the latter who in exchange for Pepin's support against the hard-pressing Lombards in Italy declared the useless Merovingian kingship to have ended.  This then allowed an assembly of Frankish nobles to elect Pepin as King of the Franks ... and then have his friend Boniface officiate at Pepin's coronation that same year.  Thus was established the foundations of the new Carolingian dynasty as Frankish kings.   The following year, the new pope Stephen II traveled to St. Denis to officially anoint Pepin as Roman Patrician (and thus protector of the Roman papacy) ... and his sons, the 12-year-old Charles (Charlemagne) and 3-year-old Carloman as eventual inheritors of their father's positions and titles.  In return, Pepin forced the Lombard king to return Italian lands taken from the Church ... an action which came to be known as the "Donation of Pepin" ... certifying the Church as a major participant in what was beginning to take shape as the European feudal system. Pepin was naturally busy forcing local rulers to either acknowledge his suzerainty ... or be replaced by Pepin's own appointments.  He also took the offensive against the Muslims of Septimania at Narbonne ... requiring seven years (752-759) to drive the Muslims – permanently – from this last bit of territory they held north of the Pyrenees.  He then turned his attention to the duchy of Aquitaine in order to force that region as well to submit to his sovereign rule.  It would take eight long years (760-768) of bloody warfare and brutal devastation to complete the task ... achieved just before he died in 768. CHARLEMAGNE In coming to power in 768 Charles (eventually "Charlemagne" or "Charles the Great") found himself facing a serious revolt in Aquitaine ... which he was able to put down fairly quickly ... even without the assistance of his brother Carloman, with whom relations became strained.  But Carloman would not factor long in the scheme of Carolingian politics, for he died in 771 – only 20 years old. Against the Lombards.  Charles now turned his attention to the Lombards ... and their contention with Pope Adrian over the title of the lands of northern Italy.  Charles sided with the pope, and attacked the Lombards at Pavia in 773 to force them to yield ... which, surrounded and now quite desperate, they surrendered the next summer (774).  This then allowed Charles to take the crown as King of the Lombards ... not that this would not be contested by Italian dukes.  Indeed Charles in 776 had to put down a rebellion led by two of the Italian dukes.  Eventually Charles was able to extend Frankish rule all the way south to Salerno (787), also pressuring the Duke of Benevento to recognize Charles's suzerainty in 788 ... influenced in part by a countering pressure coming from the Byzantine Empire based to the south at the base of the Italian peninsula. In 781 he had designated his son Pepin (originally at birth "Carloman") – still yet a child – as King of Italy (and confirmed by Pope Adrian).  Pepin would eventually take up heavy responsibilities of governance and military leadership quite well ... leading some of his father's regional armies in the constant warfare that took place during his father's rule. Against the Umayyad Moors of al-Andalus (Spain).  On another front, an opportunity to extend Christianity back into Spain seemed to present itself when local Muslim rulers promised to acknowledge him as their king ... if he would break the power of the Umayyad Emir Abd al-Rahman.  But despite gathering a huge army of Franks, Burgundians and Lombards at Saragossa in 778, they were not able to defeat the city ... and Charles finally gave up ... only to have hostile Basques7 – bitter because of Charlemagne's destruction of the walls of their capital city, Pamplona – attack the rear of his army at Roncesvalles as he retreated north across the Pyrenees.8  Charles reacted by taking direct control of Aquitaine and placing another son Louis (the Pious) over the province as its new king. However, despite the humiliation at Saragossa, Charles continued to receive homage as nominal ruler in the Catalan region of Northeastern Spain ... because of the bitter feelings the local Muslim leaders felt towards the Muslim authorities at Cordova.  Thus Charles's troops received Barcelona without a fight in 797 ... lost it in 799 to the Umayyads and then regained it again in 801.  From there the Franks extended their boundaries deeper into Spain along the Mediterranean coast, all the way to the Ebro River ... thereby founding the "Spanish March." Against the Saxons.  Meanwhile Charles had been pressing his borders deeper across Germania, defeating one Saxon tribe after another (pretty much over the entire course of his years of rule) ... bringing the Saxons to convert to Catholic Christianity as a part of his effort to solidify the foundations of his growing domain. But revolts among the Saxons were not uncommon. The Avars.  Also, his son Pippin fought the nomadic Asian Avars when they invaded Bavaria and the German lands along the Danube River ... finally defeating them in 796 and bringing them into the Catholic faith. The Slavs.  To the West of the Saxons were the Slavs, against whom Charlemagne led his army ... only to have the Slavs offer little resistance – but instead submit rather willingly to his rule, accepting his Catholic faith in the process.  Indeed, the Slavs would become important allies in some of Charlemagne's further efforts to put down Saxon rebellions.  They also served as allies in Pepin's battles with the Avars. Charlemagne crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III (800).  In December of 800 Charlemagne was in Rome visiting his friend Pope Leo III – who had taken refuge at Charlemagne's court the previous year when the Pope found himself in danger from local Romans.  On Christmas Day Pope Leo crowned Charlemagne as "Augustus" (Roman Emperor). The exact meaning of this action was not clear ... even at the time.  Some claimed that this made him Emperor of all the Roman Empire – taking up the inheritance of an unbroken line of Roman emperors that had continued via the Eastern or Byzantine Empire.  At the time, the Byzantine Empire was headed by Irene, who held her position as Empress by having had her son Leo VI blinded (who soon died of his wounds) ... making her position appear highly illegitimate to many.  Thus, to those same people, this coronation made Charles – not Irene – Rome's true Emperor.  But Charles was not interested in involvement in Mediterranean politics ... having enough problems to deal with at the borders of – or even within – the territories where he had extended Frankish rule directly.  Nonetheless, this matter of Emperorship would continue to vex East-West Roman Christian relations for many centuries to come ... as the imperial title granted to Charlemagne by the Pope would be passed on (with a brief break) by future popes to future Western leaders. The development of the feudal system European feudalism, though basic elements had been put in place by earlier Frankish kings, took a highly developed form under Charlemagne.  In conquering these numerous German and Slavic tribes (Franks, Visigoths, Burgundians, Lombards, Alemanni, Avars, Croatians, etc.),9 he had a far-flung and culturally highly diverse Empire to govern. Charlemagne saw himself not just as a military dominator over numerous tribes, sort of a tribal superchief.  Instead, he understood himself to be something of a landlord, in full personal ownership of the lands and people he had conquered, to do with as he himself personally chose.  Thus by receiving from the hands of the Pope the title of Emperor, Charlemagne had received the recognition and support – even blessing – of the powerful Church to this amazing political claim. A relationship of Lord and Vassal.  But Charlemagne had no extensive bureaucracy at hand to help him govern this massive estate, to organize the repair of roads and towns, to police the highways, to collect the taxes, etc. such as the earlier Roman emperors possessed.  So Charlemagne had to improvise.  Instead he placed sons where he could over portions of his territory – now legally an Empire – and leased portions of the rest of his empire to personal supporters termed "vassals", giving sons and vassals the right to govern in his place at the more local levels of society.  This privilege – and responsibility – placed supporters of this system under the obligation not only to supervise the peace of Charlemagne's realm in their particular assigned districts (duchies, counties, principalities, etc.), but to provide taxes and military service when called on by the emperor to do so.  Once assigned a place in Charlemagne's organization, these vassals could then turn around and, as lords (dukes, barons, counts) themselves of one of Charlemagne's regional realms, appoint vassals of their own to help govern smaller portions of their duchies or principalities.   Thus feudalism.  And thus the system of sub-infeudation (sub-leasing) or "feudalism" was born ... a system by which the older, somewhat "democratic" Germanic idea of tribal territories presided over by elective tribal councils and tribal kings was replaced by a new "proprietary" system in which all-powerful "landowners" placed at various level of this feudal system were placed in total control of what was now considered almost "personal" (or family) territory. This new "feudal" setup was given legitimacy by special rites of anointing extended to these landed rulers by officers of the Church (bishops, archbishops, and even, when the position was important enough, the Pope at Rome).  Who then dared to contest what the Church (and thus supposedly God himself) had ordained? The rightless masses (peasants).  The masses of common people who worked the farmlands of these feudal proprietors were now relegated to the level of possessions, something like cattle.  They were peasants with only the rights accorded them by the lords (and ladies) who ruled absolutely over them.  The peasants and their lands could be bought, sold, exchanged, or gifted freely – without any consultation with the peasants themselves – to other lords belonging to the privileged circle of the feudal aristocracy that Charlemagne had created ... and the Church authorized and certified. This system would remain intact in Europe for the next thousand years – until the rise in the 1800s of nationalism and the accompanying doctrine of popular democracy.10 7The Basques – located primarily in Northern Spain – are a people whose language is unlike any of the Indo-European languages … and for that matter any language spoken elsewhere in the world.  The supposition is that they are the descendants of a people who once inhabited a larger portion of Europe prior to the migrations of the Indo-European tribes into Western Europe. 8This was the famous Battle of Roncevaux Pass in which Roland, leading the rearguard of the Frankish army, put up a brave resistance before being cut down by the Basque rebels.  This event was to become legendary when it was retold as the earliest of the French epic poems, La Chanson de Roland (The Song of Roland). 9However the Saxons of England would maintain their tribal independence until conquered by the French Normans in 1066 - at which point England also came under the same system of feudalism (and a class-based society). 10Avoiding this feudal system were the city-states of Renaissance Italy and Flanders – at least for a few centuries (1300s to early 1500s).  Also the English colonists of New England would come to their own "democratic" development a couple of centuries before the rest of Europe moved in that direction in the 1800s Equestrian bronze statuette of Charlemagne (900s) From the Treasury of the Metz Cathedral (France) He was at least 6 feet in height, with round face, thick in build – thus physically a very impressive warrior Paris, Musée du Louvre Charlemagne crowned emperor by Pope Leo III - Christmas 800 From Chroniques de France ou de Saint Denis (mid-1300s) Charlemagne is crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III - December 25, 800 by Jean Fouquet (Tours, ca.1455-1460) Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, département des Manuscrits THE "CAROLINGIAN RENAISSANCE" The roots of a significant cultural revival When the Pope crowned Charlemagne as Roman Emperor, it seemed that Europe was possibly on track to restore the lost grandeur of Roman society and culture.  Charlemagne's new empire brought political stability ... and consequently economic development.  And that in turn stirred to life a dramatic intellectual-cultural revival ... developed largely because Charlemagne himself was extremely interested in cultivating scholarship within his empire ... especially as he himself (typical of Germanic political leadership) could not read. Consequently his capital at Aachen became a gathering place for scholars, artists and builders.  They came from all around this diverse empire – and even beyond. His chief minister Alcuin was an English clergyman, scholar, author, poet and teacher of logic from York (not part of his empire).  Charlemagne's court included also the Spanish Visigoth poet and scholar Theodulf, the Lombard historian Paul the Deacon, Roman-Italians grammarian Peter of Pisa and master theologian Paulinus of Aquileia, and numerous Franks ... the mathematician Einhard, the librarian Waldo, and the poet Angilbert, among them.   Huge number of Latin works were rewritten in a simplified Latin script (not just capitals but also "minuscules" or lower-case letters) ... to make learning easier ... especially among the priests, many of whom were illiterate.  And the collection of valuable writings occurred ... producing key libraries. Art and architecture also began a significant revival ... because of the German contact with the Mediterranean world where "Romanesque" architecture was still prevalent.  Also, commercial relations with the Muslim world (built heavily on the sale of slaves) exposed the Carolingian world to more sophisticated art and architecture.  Overall, the Carolingian building program was immense with numerous new cathedrals, hundreds of monasteries and around a hundred royal residences constructed during the 80-year Carolingian period of Charlemagne and his immediate successors. But perhaps most important – certainly at least to Charlemagne – was the moral and spiritual reform and strengthening of the Church, Charlemagne becoming involved in refinements of the Church's theology and doctrines.  Charlemagne understood that a strong empire depended on a strong moral culture at its base.   Raban Maur (left), supported by Alcuin (middle), dedicates his work to Archbishop Otgar of Mainz (Right) The Englishman Alcuin was considered the unsurpassed scholar in Charlemagne's court Vienna, Österreichische Nationalbibliothek Page from the "Ebbo Gospels" (St. Matthew) (816-835) Épernay, Bibliothèque municipale The Lorsch Gospels (ca. 780–820) Lorsch Gospels (Codex Aureus of Lorsch) 778–820 - Charlemagne's Court School Ivory front book cover Vatican, Bibliotheca Apostolica Lorsch Gospels Ivory back book cover London, Victoria and Albert Museum The Evangelist composing his gospel The Four Evangelicals (Matthew, Mark, Luke and John) from the Aachen Gospels (c. 820) an example of Carolingian illumination A page of text from a Carolingian Gospel, written in Carolingian miniscule The text is Luke 23:14-26 British Library Architecture of the Carolingian "Renaissance" Charlemagne's Octagon Cathedral at Aachen The octagonal interior of Charlemagne's Cathedral at Aachen Charlemagne's chapel at Aachen Cathedral The Lorsch Monastery Königshalle (kings Hall) St. Michael's Church, Fulda (820-822) St. Justinus' church in Frankfurt-Höchst (830) Europe around 800 William R. Shepherd, "The growth of Frankish power, 481–814," Historical Atlas, 1926 edition Go on to the next section:  Decline ... and Recovery in the West   Miles H. Hodges