7. THE HIGH MIDDLE AGES

POWERFUL MONARCHS Mid-1100 to Late 1200s

Conrad III (ruled 1116 - 1152)

Louis VII (r. 1137 - 1180)

Frederick I Barbarossa (r. 1152 - 1190)

Henry II (r. 1154 - 1189)

Richard I "The Lionheart" (r. 1189 - 1199)

Philip II Augustus (r. 1180 - 1223)

Frederick II (r. 1220 - 1250)

Louis IX - "Saint Louis" (r. 1226 - 1270)

Edward I (r. 1272 - 1307)

The textual material on page below is drawn directly from my work A Moral History of Western Society © 2024, Volume One, pages 242-251.

However, city states were not the only political forces arising under the stimulus of Europe's economic change.  Princely rule was also organizing itself into stronger political units.  The previous Viking invaders themselves added strong blood to the ruling lines of Europe – especially the adventuresome Normans.   And skilled princes or kings of Northern Europe found that in working with these rising cities (granting the cities certain political rights and protections ... in exchange for taxes paid into the kings' treasuries) their own power increased greatly.  They could afford their own armies made up of paid mercenaries, who were more reliable than the volunteer armies led by noblemen supposedly serving under the kings as vassals. As royal or kingly power increased, kings forced these subordinate noblemen into more complete submission to their royal authority.  As kings learned to develop political power of their own independent of the old feudal relationship which bound lord and vassal, something like a "state" belonging to the kings began to develop.  The kings developed their own magistrates to inspect their territories, collect taxes and hear court cases over local disputes.  The "king's law" and bureaucracy began to spread and deepen in the life of European society. Particularly prominent in this development were such princely rulers as the German Hohenstaufens, Conrad III and his nephew Frederick I Barbarossa; the Norman-English Plantagenets, King Henry II and his son Richard I "the Lionheart"; and the French Capetians Louis VII and Philip II Augustus … all of these followed up by another Hohenstaufen, Frederick II, the highly ambitious Holy Roman Emperor.  These individuals gained enough of a hold over larger territories that they were able to offer some degree of peace and prosperity to the land in Germany, in France and in England … when they weren't off crusading – or simply contesting each other for territorial holdings in Europe.

Conrad was an early leader of the Hohenstaufen family of Swabia (today's southwestern Germany) first appointed as Duke of Franconia by his uncle, the Holy Roman Emperor Henry V, for his support in Henry's Italian campaign … when the Tuscan Margrave was overthrown by the Florentines.   Actually, it was Conrad's vital support of other royal and imperial candidates that stood behind his enormous increase in power.  It was all part of the political game played by such candidates … everything from the duchies to the kingships, to emperorships, even the Christian papacy itself.  And in recognition of such service, Conrad, received the title of King of Italy (1128-1135) and, after some political setbacks, King of Germany – which he self-styled as "King of the Romans" (1138-1152). The titles meant little at the time … unless they could be backed up by real power.  In this matter Conrad seemed quite talented – although his earlier experience as King of Italy has not proven greatly effective.  He kept himself busy putting various relatives in positions of power across central Europe. In 1146 he was moved by the preaching of the monk Bernard of Clairvaux to "take up the cross" (become a crusader), joining French King Louis VII and his nephew Frederick Barbarossa in the effort.  This "second crusade" turned out to be disastrous, with Conrad and a small remnant of his army able to escape the wrath of the Turkish victors and then Conrad turning very ill in late 1147.  In early 1148, they regrouped and headed on to Acre and Jerusalem … but crushing failure met them again at Damascus.  Thus Conrad returned to Germany … where he continued his activities … on a more diplomatic basis … until his death in 1152.

Although he was well-educated early in anticipation of a future role as church clergy, when his older brother died, this put Louis in line for the French kingship.  He would remain a devout Christian (considered rather "monkish" in nature) … and, in the early years of his reign, close to his (and his father's) religious advisor, the Abbot Suger.  Louis was early on (1137) married to Eleanor of Aquitaine, with the expectation this this would add enormously to the holdings of the Capetian family.  Following his coronation as French king that same year, he found himself involved in the typical feudal contests for land and titles across France … most notably with the Plantagenet Henry II.   In 1147, Louis – accompanied by his wife Eleanor – joined the Second Crusade and headed overland through Germany and Hungary, joining Conrad III at that point.  Battling the Turks along the way, they finally arrived at the Holy Lands in 1148 … laying siege to Damascus – which ended disastrously.  Despite Eleanor's wanting him to stay and continue the effort with her uncle Raymond of Poitiers, at this point he decided to give up the effort and head them home.  In all, the Second Crusade proved ruinous, to both the French royal treasury and to his marriage with Eleanor. After the annulment of the marriage with Eleanor, he married Constance of Castile, who birthed only two girls before dying during a third childbirth.  He immediately married a third time … finally securing a male heir, Philip, in the process. Although politics always challenged his rule (he seemed to be constantly caught up in competition with English King Henry II), his heart was heavily in the world of religion and education.  Thus he not only undertook the building of the Notre Dame Cathedral of Paris (construction beginning in 1163) but also the founding of a college in 1150 as an annex to the Cathedral  – which would combine with the Sainte-Geneviève Abbey and the School of Saint-Victor to become the future University of Paris (by the edict of his son Philip Augustus  in 1200) – to which hundreds would then flock for study. In later years he found himself very sick, had his 14-year-old son Philip crowned French king at the Cathedral of Reims in 1180, and then died the following year.

It was Frederick, eventually nicknamed "Barbarossa" (Italian for Red Beard) – rather than his son (also Frederick) – that Conrad, on his deathbed, designated as his successor as King of Germany (soon confirmed by the German electors).  But Frederick also received the title of King of Italy (1152-1190) and soon thereafter – and most importantly – was elected as Holy Roman Emperor (1155-1190).     Frederick commanded enormous power, in that his very person combined the two most important families in Central Europe at the time, his father's Hohenstaufen side, known in Italian also as the Ghibellines (from the name of the family castle), and his mother's Welf side, known also as the Guelfs.  This would enable Frederick to make his titles something vastly more than just symbolic designations.  He was able to turn both his royal titles and his imperial title into powerful offices.  He took his responsibilities in Italy seriously, in 1155 returning the city of Rome back into the hands of the papacy … after a time of Republican governance – gaining the enormous support of the Church in the process (including the title as Holy Roman Emperor).  He then busied himself in bringing order back to the massively divided Germany (1600 principalities, large and very tiny) … and was called on repeatedly to bring Italy back under papal-feudal order (taking sides in the papal contests going on at the time) ... not always met well by the increasingly independent-minded Italians. Then he took up the call of crusaders in the Holy Lands to come and liberate them from Saladin's Muslim rule (which Frederick had himself earlier acknowledged in 1177).  Thus in 1189 the "Third Crusade" got underway, Frederick joined by English King Richard I ("The Lionheart") and French King Philip II Augustus. But once again, things did not go well for the crusaders … and even worse for Frederick, when in June of 1190 he drowned in a river in what is today Southern Turkey – well before his goal of reaching the Holy Lands and liberating them.

Although Henry started out in 1150 merely as a Norman duke serving under French King Louis VII, he was very ambitious … and succeeded in making his Plantagenet family not only England's new royal family (known also as the Angevins) … but ended up extending Plantagenet power across much of France, and even into parts of Ireland and Scotland.  And it was he that made England a truly independent power.   As a grandson of English King Henry I, he inherited in 1150 through his mother, Matilda, the title of Duke of Normandy.  And in 1151 – through his father, Geoffrey – the title of Count of Anjou (thus Angevin) … a huge county just to the south of Normandy.  And by way of marriage in 1152 to the just-divorced or papally "annulled" Eleanor (previously the wife of Louis VII), he received her holdings of Aquitaine in Southern France.  The following year, former English King Stephen of Blois came out of his "retirement" to support his own son William, clearly contesting Henry for the position of King of England.  But Henry carried the day, and Stephen had to align himself with Henry's supporters in order to open the way for Henry to be crowned King of England (1154).  Henry would eventually extend informal control over Brittany … and Eastern Ireland and Southern Scotland. Naturally Henry would face many bitter contests in holding his vast dominion ... which greatly exceeded in size his supposed sovereign (when in France) Louis VII … who anyway was very bitter over Henry's marriage to Eleanor.  By the mid-1160s, Henry and Louis would find themselves at war on multiple fronts.  And so things went for Henry. But Henry was no fool … and worked hard to bring all the warring to an end … and build his rule more securely on the solid basis of royal law … in essence founding England's Common Law. But politics within Henry's own family and the circle immediately around him became less stable with time.  Eleanor, a strong-willed woman, birthed eight children … and eventually became caught up in family rivalries that inevitably developed.  And when it became apparent that his candidate for the vital position as Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket, , was blocking Henry's effort to bring the Church of England under his own authority, not only would the two former allies part company (Becket even had England put under papal "interdict" or condemnation), but Henry unintentionally had Becket murdered (not simply arrested). The shame Henry experienced over this matter would weaken him considerably. Ultimately it was family rivalries within his own family and among his barons that would do him in … over the matter of the inheritance of all of his titles … but now most importantly the title of King of England.  Then, in the midst of a huge revolt by his own children, his eldest son Henry died of a fever, leaving the royal inheritance in the hands of Richard (or possibly his son John – Henry's own preferred candidate).  Then the new French King Philip Augustus joined forces with Richard to attack Henry's position in France … although papal intervention not only brought a truce but also a stepping back of Richard and Philip Augustus – in order for them to take up the call to crusade in the Holy Lands.  But Richard and Philip took one last shot at Henry before their departure … as Henry himself was dying of a bleeding ulcer.  Then when it was announced that Henry's son John had joined forced with his brother Richard … this finished off Henry, who soon died (1189).

Richard figures more importantly in legend than in actual political history.  He was undoubtedly a fierce warrior … thus his name "the Lionheart."  He inherited all the titles and land held by his father Henry … including importantly the position as King of England.  But he actually spent very little time in England as its king, possibly only as much as six months.  Naturally French-speaking, he found himself mostly in the very wealthy and quite fashionable Aquitaine, … when he wasn't off crusading. When news came in 1187 that Jerusalem had fallen to Saladin, both Richard and his French ally Philip agreed to go on a Third Crusade.  After collecting a huge amount of taxes in order to build a royal treasury needed to conduct this crusade, he headed off in 1190, coming to Sicily, establishing there by military means the Kingship of Sicily for Tancred.  He and Philip then headed onward, went through a destructive storm at sea and ended up at Cyprus, where they battled and defeated the local ruler – who had taken advantage of the crusaders' plight in grabbing their monies and imprisoning them for ransom.  Ultimately, Richard turned the Island over to the Knights Templar to rule.  Thus Richard's reputation as a warrior developed quickly. They arrived at Acre (1191), with both Richard and Philip becoming sick, even as the crusaders attacked the Muslim forces inside of Acre. They did succeed in driving Saladin from the fortress.  But Philip, at that point, had enough of the venture and returned to France, leaving Richard to carry on the effort by himself.  But a split in the crusader ranks as they approached Jerusalem, plus rumors that Philip and Richard's brother John were plotting against Richard back in Europe, forced Richard to come to  terms with Saladin (1192) … and Richard headed home. But he had troubles at sea on his return, and had to take the land route across Central Europe to get home.  But when he came to the territory of Leopold of Austria, who was angry with Richard on a number of counts, he was seized and imprisoned.  Threatened by Pope Celestine III for having seized a crusader while on his mission (a grand crime) the pope excommunicated Leopold (cut him off from the privilege of Christian worship – considered at the time as absolutely necessary for eternal salvation).  With Philip's encouragement, Leopold then (1193) simply transferred Richard into the hands of the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI.  But with the Emperor being so powerful, the pope dared not excommunicate him.  Then Henry demanded an enormous ransom for Richard's release.  Under his mother Eleanor's direction, heavy taxes were again levied on the people of the Plantagenet domains … and Richard (despite John's opposition, also encouraged by Philip) was finally released (1194).  On his return Richard forgave John … but found himself at war with Philip in his effort to regain his French holdings.  Again, raising taxes, he built castles where he could to strengthen his position … and attacked the towns and castles of the opposition.  But he died of an infectious wound in the process in 1199.   His brother John (infamous in the legend of Robin Hood) would then take over his holdings ... and fall into dispute not only with Philip (now an adversary) but also with his English barons, who forced a deeply humiliated John (loss of a key battle in 1214) to agree to terms (the Magna Carta of 1215) granting greater political independence to those same barons.

When Philip II was crowned in 1180, approximately the Western half of today's France was held by the Angevin dynasty – under the rule of English King Henry II.  The young Philip was determined to change this political relationship, not just in bringing the Angevin dukes back under Capetian royal authority … but ultimately in pushing them entirely out of France … extending Capetian rule tremendously in the process.  Indeed, by the time of his death in 1220, the Angevins held only a small portion of French territory in southwestern France.  At this point most all of France was held by Philip as the Capetian inheritance. Philip performed this amazing political feat both in increasing massively the size of his royal army (adding to it a sizeable navy – and by playing on the feudal rivalries going on not only around the larger North-European realm but also within the Angevin family itself … for instance in allying himself with Richard and John in their rebellion against their father Henry – and then later in allying with John in his dispute with his brother Richard.  He took on independent feudal lords, forcing them under tighter royal control … again both militarily and diplomatically. We've seen that he joined Richard in the ill-fated Third Crusade … and then turned against Richard at every opportunity thereafter, step by step reducing Richard's Angevin holdings.  But it was not until John took the English throne in 1199 that the largest part of the Angevin family territorial turnover to Philip occurred … most securely so as a result of the Battle of Bouvines in 1214 – when John and some of his feudal allies failed horribly in their effort to retake territory lost to Philip.

Another grand figure of those days was Frederick, King of Sicily (as of 1198 when only 3 years old!), King of Germany (as of 1212), King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor (as of 1220) … and King of Jerusalem (by marriage as of 1225).  Although the title Holy Roman Emperor, the most important of his political claims, was largely based on German holdings, Frederick spent little time there … preferring to base himself in Sicily … or be on crusade.  Italian politics also commanded much of his attention … as he fought to keep the rebellious republic-minded Italian cities under imperial control.  Complicating matters further was the political battle going on between Frederick (supported by the Ghibellines) and the Roman Popes (supported by the Guelphs).   Frederick had disappointed Christian Europe when he failed to show up for the Fifth Crusade (1217-1221) and then finally did pursue the matter with the Sixth Crusade (1227-1229) but did not get very far in the venture before turning back, claiming sickness – causing him to be excommunicated by Pope Gregory IX for not respecting his crusading pledge.  The next year he did finally make the venture … but to the anger of the papacy because being excommunicated, he did not have papal authorization for this venture.  Nonetheless he arrived in Jerusalem, conducted diplomatic exchanges with the Muslim Ayyubid sultan, Al-Kamil, securing crusaders holdings in Jerusalem, Bethlehem and Nazareth … and Frederick's official coronation as King of Jerusalem (1230).  In exchange, he promised numerous rights to the Muslim population.  This made local crusader noblemen, Templars, and Hospitallers very unhappy.  But it also made the papacy furious, because this had been transacted outside of papal authorization.  But it did succeed in securing the Holy Lands once again as Christian territory … although in 1244 Muslims were once again able to retake the area. Relations between Frederick and Pope Gregory turned heated … as the order of excommunication was lifted … then re-imposed when Frederick took an ever-stronger hand in Italy's political conflicts.  Then, as he marched his army on Rome to confront the pope in 1241, Gregory died … and Frederick backed off.   He was then forced to turn his attentions elsewhere when Mongol invaders reached the borders of his imperial territory.  But the Mongols, after burning and pillaging Poland and Hungary, found the going now extremely difficult … and simply retreated to Russia (1242). Relations with a new pope, Innocent IV (1243-1254), merely worsened as Innocent supported the Guelph cities attempting to throw off Frederick's rule.  The pope also worked with German princes to undercut Frederick's position as Holy Roman Emperor.  In the end, Frederick was able to send Innocent fleeing to France … and to hang onto or even retake some of his domain.  But it all served to exhaust him.  Then, as he knew himself to be dying, he was able to assign various lands to family members and allies … and promised to return the lands he had seized from the Church.   Frederick died in 1250.  And with the death of his son Conrad four years later, the Hohenstaufen dynasty came to an end.

Louis IX was the grandson of Philip II … and considered a model king in his very "goodness" – both political and personal.  In fact, the Catholic Church, only 27 years after his death, proclaimed him as a "saint," the only French king to be honored this way. He came to the French throne at age 12, and had his mother, Blanche of Castile, rule as regent … overseeing and in 1229 bringing to political success the lengthy "crusade" against the Albigensian heresy that had been sweeping Southern France. Finally taking full rule soon thereafter, Louis found himself facing the usual feudal problems with various French nobles … plus English efforts to regain lost Angevin territory in France.  He took on those challenges … in a way that was considered at the time exceptionally fair or "just."  He was also well-known for his work with the poor within his kingdom, personally rather than just politically involved with them in the process. But his sense of Christian "goodness" extended to the realm of dealing with heretics … a problem still shaking France – even after the successful completion of the Albigensian Crusade.  For instance, responding to the call of Pope Gregory IX for action against the Jewish heresy, in 1242 Louis ordered the seizing and burning of some 12,000 copies of the Jewish Talmud and other Jewish writings.  He continued to oversee the confiscation of Cathar properties in Southern France – all the way to his departure on the Seventh Crusade in 1250.  He expanded the role of the French Inquisition … requiring the mutilation of the tongue and lips of anyone found guilty of blasphemy.  But this kind of rigor was exactly what was expected of a "good" Christian king.   He also exemplified the role of the crusader king, involved in not just one, but two crusades to the Holy Land.  In his involvement in the Seventh Crusade, he first found himself rather quickly defeated in Egypt in 1250 by Ayyubid troops … and released only upon payment of an enormous ransom demand.  He did however remain in the Holy Land … helping to strengthen the lines of defense of the crusaders in Jerusalem, Acre and other points in the area.  Finally, in 1254, he and his army returned to France.  Then he was back at the venture again in 1270 in response to the calling of the Eighth Crusade.  But he got no further that Carthage (Tunisia) when he caught dysentery there and died of the disease.

Edward was the son of one of England's longest ruling kings, Henry III (1216-1272) … which had been a highly troubled time for England … Henry not being strong king and not doing well in his efforts to reconquer lost Plantagenet lands in France – or in keeping radical barons under his control.  His son Edward however proved able to bring these barons back under his father's rule … and then headed off on the 9th crusade to the Holy Lands in 1270.  Two years later, on his return to England, Edward learned of his father's death and his own assumption of royal rule. Edward not only spent time reforming's England's feudal laws and administration but he also engaged himself in conquering Wales (1283) and then taking control of a leaderless Scotland (1290) – in turn sparking a revolt and then on-going war (with Scotland's ally France joining the action), as a result.  His wars however produced a huge tax burden for his English subjects to deal with, he performed the very cruel act of ordering the expulsion of England's Jews (1290), and his hanging and quartering of the rebel leader William Wallace (1305) simply succeeded in turning Wallace into a Scottish hero.  And when he died in 1307, a very corrupt son, Edward II, was to take his place as English king.

Go on to the next section:  Cultural-Intellectual Stirrings

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  Miles H. Hodges